Holding governments accountable for their commitments: CITES Review of Significant Trade for a very high-volume taxon

Using online reports of seahorse seizures to track their illegal trade

Illegal wildlife trade (IWT) is a persistent and extensive threat to global biodiversity. Hundreds of marine fish species are subject to regulation under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), but it is unclear how much protection species gain from CITES because information on marine fish IWT is limited. We used online reports of seized shipments of seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) to investigate their illegal trade. Seahorses were the first genus of marine fishes to be listed under CITES. We compiled 297 unique seizure records from 192 online outlets posted from January 2010 to April 2021 and analyzed the number of seahorses seized, the value of the seized items, trade routes, and other seizure details. Dried seahorses accounted for nearly all seizures, which totaled around 5 million individuals valued at over US$28 million. The reported number of seizures and the number of seahorses seized increased over time. Reported illegal trade involved 62 countries and other jurisdictions. Seized seahorses predominantly originated in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. China was the primary destination. Seahorses were mostly intercepted in transit and in destination countries rather than source countries. Airports were the most common location for seizures, and passenger baggage represented the primary transportation method by number of seizures, but sea cargo facilitated the largest seizures. Seahorses were most commonly seized by customs, often in conjunction with other regulated wildlife products. Although seizures led to detention of actors, information on subsequent legal actions was limited. Addressing the illegal trade in seahorses requires greater enforcement in source countries and increasing the realized risks associated with smuggling. Our findings can inform intelligence-led enforcement efforts to curb seahorse trafficking and highlight data biases and gaps that should be addressed to facilitate enhanced deterrence measures.

Preventing zoonotic spillover through regulatory frameworks governing wildlife trade: A scoping review

Wildlife trade can create adverse impacts for biodiversity and human health globally, including increased risks for zoonotic spillover that can lead to pandemics. Institutional responses to zoonotic threats posed by wildlife trade are diverse; understanding regulations governing wildlife trade is an important step for effective zoonotic spillover prevention measures. In this review, we focused on peer-reviewed studies and grey literature conducted on regulatory approaches that govern domestic and international wildlife trade in order to assess the role of local, national and global-level institutions in the prevention of zoonotic spillover and infection transmission between humans. The five-stage scoping review protocol described by Arksey and O'Malley to map key concepts and main sources and types of evidence available was followed to understand and analyze empirical evidence from peer-reviewed studies and grey literature conducted on regulatory approaches that govern domestic and international wildlife. Sources were included if they discuss at least one of three points: regulatory approaches governing the wild animal trade, including wild animal markets, traditional medicine or exotic pets; regulatory approaches governing importation of wild animals and the international wildlife supply chain; or the role of local, national, and global-level institutions in regulating wild animal trade for food, traditional medicine or exotic pets. A total of 1598 sources were retrieved, from which 32 sources were included in the final review (30 studies + 2 grey literature reports). Based on published literature, regulations governing wildlife trade are inconsistent within and between countries. Organizations regulating wildlife trade may have competing interests, which can lead to fragmentation and a lack in coordination and oversight. National compliance with international regulations can be an issue. Reducing the probability of spillover events in wildlife trade is key to prevent future pandemics. Our results indicate a need for enhanced regulatory harmonization within and between national and supranational regulations. Coordination and collaboration for prevention of zoonotic infection and spillover may be enhanced through future research focused on the effectiveness of timely Information sharing and global- and national- level harmonization of wildlife trade regulations.

A practical approach to meeting national obligations for sustainable trade under CITES

Reconciling conservation goals with sustainable resource use requires adaptive management strategies. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates global trade for species listed on Appendix II, partly by requiring member countries (parties) to ensure exports do not damage wild populations (called making positive "nondetriment findings" [NDFs]). Unfortunately, when parties find NDFs difficult, they often suspend legal trade, imposing economic costs and driving trade underground. To make it easier for parties to examine the detrimental nature of exports, we devised a spatial approach and applied it to seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) in Tamil Nadu, India, as an example. Our approach involves mapping answers to 5 key questions on species distribution (QA), pressures (QB), management measures (QC), management implementation (QD), and species' population status (QE). We gathered data from fisher interviews and published literature. Seahorse abundance was greatest in southern Palk Bay and the northern Gulf of Mannar, primarily in seagrasses and coral reefs (QA). Fishing pressure was highest in Palk Bay, primarily from bottom trawlers and dragnetters operating in shallow seahorse habitats near the coastline (QB). Management measures including a marine protected area (MPA), bottom trawl exclusion zone, and closed season were theoretically in place (QC), but their implementation was poor (QD). Fishers reported seahorse catches in 85% of the area covered by the MPA and the exclusion zone; bottom trawlers were responsible for most violations. Seahorses were also captured in Sri Lankan waters, where bottom trawling is banned. Fisher reports indicated declining seahorse catches and reduced body sizes (QE), highlighting unsustainable exploitation. Our results highlight the need for better implementation of existing management measures before a positive NDF can be made and suggest mitigation beyond bans. Such pragmatic spatial analyses can help regulate exports at sustainable levels, supporting CITES implementation for its vast range of species.

Conservation: Trading species to extinction?

Is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) up to the task of preventing species from being driven to extinction by trade? A new study documents some success but also highlights major deficiencies.

Seahorse Predation by Octopuses in the Caribbean and the West Pacific

There is much documentation about seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) being threatened by habitat degradation and overfishing, but relatively few published studies mention their natural predators. The present study documents three cases in which seahorses are being caught by octopuses. In one case, the seahorse was partly consumed. These observations made at Bonaire (Caribbean Netherlands) and New South Wales (Australia) suggest that predation on seahorses by octopuses may be more widespread and common than previously thought.

Mixed protection of threatened species traded under CITES

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates international legal trade to prevent the detrimental harvest of wildlife. We assess the volumes of threatened and non-threatened bird, mammal, amphibian, and reptile species in the CITES-managed trade and how this trade responded to category changes of species in the IUCN Red List between 2000 and 2018. In this period, over a thousand wild-sourced vertebrate species were commercially traded. Species of least conservation concern had the highest yearly trade volumes (excluding birds), whereas species in most Red List categories showed an overall decrease in trade reoccurrence and volume through time, with most species unlikely to reoccur in recent trade. Charismatic species with populations split-listed between Appendices I and II were traded in substantially lower yearly volumes when sourced from the more-threatened Appendix I populations. Species trade volumes did not systematically respond to changes in the Red List category, with 31.0% of species disappearing from trade before changing category and the majority of species revealing no difference in trade volumes from pre- to post-change. Just 2.7% (12/432) of species volumes declined and 2.1% (9/432) of volumes increased after a category change. Our findings highlight that non-threatened species dominate trade but reveal small numbers of highly threatened species in trade and a disconnect between species trade volumes and changing extinction risk. We highlight potential drawbacks in the current regulation of trade in listed species and urgently call for open and accessible assessments-non-detriment findings-robustly evidencing the sustainable use of threatened and non-threatened species alike.

Diversity of Seahorse Species (Hippocampus spp.) in the International Aquarium Trade

Seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) are threatened as a result of habitat degradation and overfishing. They have commercial value as traditional medicine, curio objects, and pets in the aquarium industry. There are 48 valid species, 27 of which are represented in the international aquarium trade. Most species in the aquarium industry are relatively large and were described early in the history of seahorse taxonomy. In 2002, seahorses became the first marine fishes for which the international trade became regulated by CITES (Convention for the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), with implementation in 2004. Since then, aquaculture has been developed to improve the sustainability of the seahorse trade. This review provides analyses of the roles of wild-caught and cultured individuals in the international aquarium trade of various Hippocampus species for the period 1997–2018. For all species, trade numbers declined after 2011. The proportion of cultured seahorses in the aquarium trade increased rapidly after their listing in CITES, although the industry is still struggling to produce large numbers of young in a cost-effective way, and its economic viability is technically challenging in terms of diet and disease. Whether seahorse aquaculture can benefit wild populations will largely depend on its capacity to provide an alternative livelihood for subsistence fishers in the source countries. For most species, CITES trade records of live animals in the aquarium industry started a few years earlier than those of dead bodies in the traditional medicine trade, despite the latter being 15 times higher in number. The use of DNA analysis in the species identification of seahorses has predominantly been applied to animals in the traditional medicine market, but not to the aquarium trade. Genetic tools have already been used in the description of new species and will also help to discover new species and in various other kinds of applications.