The organization of psychiatric emergency services and related differences in restraint practices

International research into 22 years of use of chemical restraint: An evidence overview

BACKGROUND

Chemical restraint (CR) (also known as rapid tranquilisation) is the forced (non-consenting) administration of medications to manage uncontrolled aggression, anxiety, or violence in people who are likely to cause harm to themselves or others. Our population of interest was adults with mental health disorders (with/without substance abuse). There has been a growing international movement over the past 22 years towards reducing/eliminating restrictive practices such as CR. It is appropriate to summarise the research that has been published over this time, identify trends and gaps in knowledge, and highlight areas for new research to inform practice.

AIMS

To undertake a comprehensive systematic search to identify, and describe, the volume and nature of primary international research into CR published since 1995.

METHODS

This paper reports the processes and overall findings of a systematic search for all available primary research on CR published between 1 January 1996 and 31 July 2018. It describes the current evidence base by hierarchy of evidence, country (ies) producing the research, CR definitions, study purpose, and outcome measures.

RESULTS

This review identified 311 relevant primary studies (21 RCTs; 46 non-controlled experimental or prospective observational studies; 77 cross-sectional studies; 69 retrospective studies; 67 opinion pieces, position or policy statements; and 31 qualitative studies). The USA, UK, and Australia contributed over half the research, whilst cross-country collaborations comprised 6% of it. The most common research settings comprised acute psychiatric wards (23.3%), general psychiatric wards (21.6%), and general hospital emergency departments (19.0%).

DISCUSSION

A key lesson learnt whilst compiling this database of research into CR was to ensure that all papers described non-consenting administration of medications to manage adults with uncontrolled aggression, anxiety, or violence. There were tensions in the literature between using effective CR without producing adverse events, and how to decide when CR was needed (compared with choosing non-chemical intervention for behavioural emergencies), respecting patients' dignity whilst safeguarding their safety, and preserving safe workplaces for staff, and care environments for other patients. The range of outcome measures suggests opportunities to standardise future research.

American Association for Emergency Psychiatry Task Force on Medical Clearance of Adult Psychiatric Patients. Part II: Controversies over Medical Assessment, and Consensus Recommendations

Introduction

The emergency medical evaluation of psychiatric patients presenting to United States emergency departments (ED), usually termed “medical clearance,” often varies between EDs. A task force of the American Association for Emergency Psychiatry (AAEP), consisting of physicians from emergency medicine, physicians from psychiatry and a psychologist, was convened to form consensus recommendations for the medical evaluation of psychiatric patients presenting to U.S.EDs.

Methods

The task force reviewed existing literature on the topic of medical evaluation of psychiatric patients in the ED and then combined this with expert consensus. Consensus was achieved by group discussion as well as iterative revisions of the written document. The document was reviewed and approved by the AAEP Board of Directors.

Results

Eight recommendations were formulated. These recommendations cover various topics in emergency medical examination of psychiatric patients, including goals of medical screening in the ED, the identification of patients at low risk for co-existing medical disease, key elements in the ED evaluation of psychiatric patients including those with cognitive disorders, specific language replacing the term “medical clearance,” and the need for better science in this area.

Conclusion

The evidence indicates that a thorough history and physical examination, including vital signs and mental status examination, are the minimum necessary elements in the evaluation of psychiatric patients. With respect to laboratory testing, the picture is less clear and much more controversial.

American Association for Emergency Psychiatry Task Force on Medical Clearance of Adults Part I: Introduction, Review and Evidence-Based Guidelines

Introduction

In the United States, the number of patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) for a mental health concern is significant and expected to grow. The breadth of the medical evaluation of these patients is controversial. Attempts have been made to establish a standard evaluation for these patients, but to date no nationally accepted standards exist. A task force of the American Association of Emergency Psychiatry, consisting of physicians from emergency medicine and psychiatry, and a psychologist was convened to form consensus recommendations on the medical evaluation of psychiatric patients presenting to EDs.

Methods

The task force reviewed existing literature on the topic of medical evaluation of psychiatric patients in the ED (Part I) and then combined this with expert consensus (Part II).

Results

In Part I, we discuss terminological issues and existing evidence on medical exams and laboratory studies of psychiatric patients in the ED.

Conclusion

Emergency physicians should work cooperatively with psychiatric receiving facilities to decrease unnecessary testing while increasing the quality of medical screening exams for psychiatric patients who present to EDs.

Psychiatric patients' perception of physical restraint

OBJECTIVE

To investigate psychiatric patients' subjective perception during and after belt fixation.

METHOD

All patients who were involuntarily admitted and physically restrained at a psychiatric intensive care unit within an 18-month study period were analysed. Ratings were obtained at four visits when questioning was possible.

RESULTS

Within a heterogeneous diagnostic sample of 47 patients, only 12 patients were eligible to participate during belt fixation. After cessation of fixation, eight patients lacked any memory of restraint, while 36 could be questioned. Visual analogue scale median scores indicated powerlessness and depressiveness rather than anxiety and aggression. Patients' acceptance of the coercive measure was significantly higher (P = 0.003), while patients' memory was significantly lower than expected (P < 0.001). About 50% of the patients documented high perceived coercion, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) could be supposed in a quarter of the restrained individuals. Subjective perceptions concerning fixation showed no significant changes over time. Results showed high interindividual variability.

CONCLUSION

Visual analogue scale revealed that belt fixation seemed to be forgotten or accepted in the majority of patients, probably due to psychiatric intensive care, psychopharmacological treatment and clinical improvements. The responses of a quarter of the patients assessed before discharge may be in accordance with symptoms of PTSD.

Mechanical and pharmacological restraints in acute psychiatric wards--why and how are they used?

Restraint use has been reported to be common in acute psychiatry, but empirical research is scarce concerning why and how restraints are used. This study analysed data from patients' first episodes of restraint in three acute psychiatric wards during a 2-year study period. Logistic regression analyses were used to identify predictors for type and duration of restraint. The distribution of restraint categories for the 371 restrained patients was as follows: mechanical restraint, 47.2%; mechanical and pharmacological restraint together, 35.3%; and pharmacological restraint, 17.5%. The most commonly reported reason for restraint was assault (occurred or imminent). It increased the likelihood of resulting in concomitant pharmacological restraint. Female patients had shorter duration of mechanical restraint than men. Age above 49 and female gender increased the likelihood of pharmacological versus mechanical restraint, whereas being restrained due to assault weakened this association. Episodes with mechanical restraint and coinciding pharmacological restraint lasted longer than mechanical restraint used separately, and were less common among patients with a personality disorder. Diagnoses, age and reason for restraint independently increased the likelihood for being subjected to specific types of restraint. Female gender predicted type of restraint and duration of episodes.

Recognizing neuroleptic malignant syndrome in the emergency department: a case study

PURPOSE

A case study is presented to discuss the importance of accurate assessment of a patient in the emergency department (ED) who develops neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS).

CONCLUSIONS

There has been a significant increase in the number of patients with psychiatric emergencies seeking treatment in the ED. The most frequently used medication for treating these patients is a high-potency typical antipsychotic (neuroleptic). Although NMS is a rare condition, it is a potentially fatal complication of neuroleptic medications.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Early identification of this potentially life-threatening syndrome will lead to prompt treatment and improve the care of this vulnerable population.

Emergency telepsychiatry

Telepsychiatry can be used in two kinds of psychiatric emergencies: one-time clinical events and public health situations associated with mass disaster. Emergency telepsychiatry delivered by videoconferencing has the potential to improve patient care in many settings. Although experience is limited, it has been found to be safe and effective, as well as satisfactory to both emergency department staff and the psychiatric patients treated. The development of comprehensive and standardized guidelines is necessary. There has been little use of acute telemedicine in disaster situations to date. However, telemedicine is becoming part of routine emergency medical response planning in many jurisdictions. Emergency telepsychiatry has the potential to reduce emergency department overcrowding, provide much needed care in rural areas and improve access to psychiatric care in the event of a natural or man-made disaster.