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Konlan KD, Lee H, Lee M, Kim Y, Lee H, Abdulai JA. Risk factors associated with the incidence and prevalence of hypertension in Ghana: an integrated review (2016-2021). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2023; 33:1132-1147. [PMID: 35578383 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2022.2076814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study synthesized the risk factors associated with hypertension among adolescents and adults in Ghana. A systematic search in four databases between 2016 and 2021 retrieved 119 Ghanaian studies, and through screening, 16 were selected. Thematic analysis was used to synthesize extracted data. Prevalence of hypertension ranged from 13.0% to 28.4% and prehypertension 22.0% to 51.4%. The non-modifiable hypertension risk factors were age, marital status, gender, and residence. The modifiable risk factors were consuming additional table salt, salted meat, alcohol, canned meats, smoking, and psychological factors, including stress and anxiety. Also, higher education and socio-economic status, employment, access to medical insurance, overweight, and higher BMI were risk factors. Targeted, sustained, systematic, and effective intervention programs should target high-risk people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kennedy Diema Konlan
- Mo-Im Kim Nursing Research Institute, College of Nursing, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
- Department of Public Health Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
| | - Hyeonkyeong Lee
- Mo-Im Kim Nursing Research Institute, College of Nursing, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
- College of Nursing, Brain Korea 21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Mikyung Lee
- Mo-Im Kim Nursing Research Institute, College of Nursing, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
- College of Nursing, Brain Korea 21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Youlim Kim
- Mo-Im Kim Nursing Research Institute, College of Nursing, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
- College of Nursing, Brain Korea 21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyeyeon Lee
- Mo-Im Kim Nursing Research Institute, College of Nursing, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Juliana Asibi Abdulai
- University for Development Studies, University Health Services (Nursing), Tamale, Northern Region, Ghana
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Adebayo O, Akpa O, Asowata OJ, Fakunle A, Sarfo FS, Akpalu A, Wahab K, Obiako R, Komolafe M, Owolabi L, Osaigbovo GO, Okekunle AP, Sunmonu T, Tiwari HK, Jenkins C, Arulogun O, Appiah L, Akinyemi J, Adeoye AM, Ogbole G, Yaria J, Arnett D, Adebayo P, Calys-Tagoe B, Ogah OS, Balogun O, Ogunjimi L, Mensah Y, Agbogu-Ike OU, Akinyemi R, Ovbiagele B, Owolabi MO. Determinants of First-Ever Stroke Severity in West Africans: Evidence From the SIREN Study. J Am Heart Assoc 2023:e027888. [PMID: 37301737 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.122.027888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Background Baseline stroke severity is probably partly responsible for poor stroke outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa. However, there is a paucity of information on determinants of stroke severity among indigenous Africans. We sought to identify the factors associated with stroke severity among West Africans in the SIREN (Stroke Investigative Research and Educational Networks) study. Methods and Results Stroke was diagnosed clinically and confirmed with brain neuroimaging. Severe stroke was defined as a Stroke Levity Scale score of ≤5. A multivariate logistic regression model was constructed to identify factors associated with stroke severity at 95% CI and a nominal cutoff of 5% type 1 error. A total of 3660 stroke cases were included. Overall, 50.7%% had severe stroke, including 47.6% of all ischemic strokes and 56.1% of intracerebral hemorrhage. Factors independently associated with severe stroke were meat consumption (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.97 [95% CI, 1.43-2.73]), low vegetable consumption (aOR, 2.45 [95% CI, 1.93-3.12]), and lesion volume, with an aOR of 1.67 (95% CI, 1.03-2.72) for lesion volume of 10 to 30 cm3 and aOR of 3.88 (95% CI, 1.93-7.81) for lesion volume >30 cm3. Severe ischemic stroke was independently associated with total anterior circulation infarction (aOR, 3.1 [95% CI, 1.5-6.9]), posterior circulation infarction (aOR, 2.2 [95% CI, 1.1-4.2]), and partial anterior circulation infarction (aOR, 2.0 [95% CI, 1.2-3.3]) compared with lacunar stroke. Increasing age (aOR, 2.6 [95% CI, 1.3-5.2]) and lesion volume >30 cm3 (aOR, 6.2 [95% CI, 2.0-19.3]) were independently associated with severe intracerebral hemorrhage. Conclusions Severe stroke is common among indigenous West Africans, where modifiable dietary factors are independently associated with it. These factors could be targeted to reduce the burden of severe stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Onoja Akpa
- Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Osahon J Asowata
- Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Adekunle Fakunle
- Department of Public Health Osun State University Osogbo Nigeria
| | - Fred S Sarfo
- Department of Medicine Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Kumasi Ghana
| | - Albert Akpalu
- Department of Medicine University of Ghana Medical School Accra Ghana
| | - Kolawole Wahab
- Department of Medicine University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital Ilorin Nigeria
| | - Reginald Obiako
- Department of Medicine Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Nigeria
| | - Morenikeji Komolafe
- Department of Medicine Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital Ile-Ife Nigeria
| | - Lukman Owolabi
- Department of Medicine Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital Kano Nigeria
| | | | | | - Taofiki Sunmonu
- Department of Medicine Federal Medical Centre Ondo State Owo Nigeria
| | | | | | | | - Lambert Appiah
- Department of Medicine Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Kumasi Ghana
| | - Joshua Akinyemi
- Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Abiodun M Adeoye
- Department of Medicine University College Hospital Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Godwin Ogbole
- Department of Radiology University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Joseph Yaria
- Department of Medicine University College Hospital Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Donna Arnett
- College of Public Health University of Kentucky KY Lexington USA
| | - Philip Adebayo
- Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH) and LAUTECH Teaching Hospital Oyo State Ogbomoso Nigeria
- Aga-Khan University Dar es Salaam Tanzania
| | | | - Okechukwu S Ogah
- Department of Medicine University College Hospital Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Olayemi Balogun
- Department of Medicine Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Nigeria
| | - Luqman Ogunjimi
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics Olabisi Onabanjo University Abeokuta Nigeria
| | - Yaw Mensah
- Department of Medicine Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Kumasi Ghana
| | | | - Rufus Akinyemi
- Neuroscience and Ageing Research Unit, Institute for Advanced Medical Research and Training, College of Medicine University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
- Center for Genomic and Precision Medicine, College of Medicine University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Bruce Ovbiagele
- Weill Institute for Neurosciences, School of Medicine University of California San Francisco CA USA
| | - Mayowa O Owolabi
- Department of Medicine University College Hospital Ibadan Nigeria
- Center for Genomic and Precision Medicine, College of Medicine University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
- Lebanese American University Beirut Lebanon
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Shin J, Konlan KD. Prevalence and determinants of medication adherence among patients taking antihypertensive medications in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis 2010-2021. Nurs Open 2023; 10:3506-3518. [PMID: 36693022 PMCID: PMC10170912 DOI: 10.1002/nop2.1613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM This study synthesized the prevalence and determinants of hypertension medication adherence. DESIGN Systematic review and meta-analysis through systematic search in PUBMED, EMBASE, CINAHL, Cochrane library and Google Scholar, from 2010 to 2021. METHODS Screening was conducted and reported according to PRISMA criteria, and ten studies identified according to predetermined criteria. The studies were evaluated using the Mixed Method Appraisal Tool. Analysis was done using the narrative synthesis method. Prevalence data were examined using random effects meta-analysis in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis version 3. RESULTS The overall prevalence of medication adherence was 34.1%, and determinants of medication adherence were the ability to attain hypertension control; hypertension knowledge; and treatment-related factors including belief of the drug efficacy, having commodities, sociocultural and financial-related factors. It is imperative to develop, test and use a comprehensive hypertension medication adherence tool that is culturally congruent to Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhee Shin
- College of Nursing, Woosuk University, Wanju-gun, Korea
| | - Kennedy Diema Konlan
- Mo-Im Kim Nursing Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Nursing, Seoul, South Korea.,Department of Public Health Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
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Shin J, Konlan KD, Mensah E. Health promotion interventions for the control of hypertension in Africa, a systematic scoping review from 2011 to 2021. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260411. [PMID: 34843567 PMCID: PMC8629234 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background A proportion of hypertension patients live in developing countries with low awareness, poor control capabilities, and limited health resources. Prevention and control of hypertension can be achieved by applying both targeted and population-based health promotion interventions. This study synthesised the health promotion interventions for the control of hypertension in Africa. Methods An in-depth search of PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane library, web of science, google scholar yielded 646 titles and 615 after duplicates were removed. Full text (112) was screened, and ten articles were selected. The data analysis method was thematic analysis through the incorporation of convergent synthesis. The major sub-themes that were identified were reduction in the prevalence of hypertension, increase in knowledge, impact and feasibility, role in the reduction of risk factors, and the cost associated with health promotion interventions. Results Health promotion interventions led to a remarkable decrease in the prevalence of hypertension, increased knowledge and awareness in the intervention compared to the control groups. Community-based interventions were noted to have a positive impact on people’s adoption of measures to reduce risk or identify early symptoms of hypertension. There was a significant relationship for the reduction in salt consumption, smoking, alcohol use, and increased physical activity after the administration of an intervention. Interventions using community health workers were cost-effective. Conclusion To sustain health promotion interventions and achieve control of hypertension especially in the long term, interventions must be culturally friendly and incorporate locally available resources in Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhee Shin
- Mo-im Kim Nursing Research Institute, College of Nursing, Yonsei University, Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kennedy Diema Konlan
- Mo-im Kim Nursing Research Institute, College of Nursing, Yonsei University, Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Public Health Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
- * E-mail:
| | - Eugenia Mensah
- War Memorial Hospital, Navrongo, Upper East Region, Ghana
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Matuja SS, Munseri P, Moshiro C, Khanbhai K, Mahawish K. The burden, correlates and outcomes of left ventricular hypertrophy among young Africans with first ever stroke in Tanzania. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2021; 21:485. [PMID: 34627161 PMCID: PMC8501668 DOI: 10.1186/s12872-021-02297-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Left ventricular hypertrophy is a pathophysiological response often due to chronic uncontrolled hypertension. Our primary aim was to investigate the magnitude, correlates and outcomes of left ventricular hypertrophy as a surrogate maker for chronic uncontrolled hypertension in young adults ≤ 45 years with stroke. Our secondary aim was to determine the accuracy of electrocardiography using Sokolow-Lyon and Cornell criteria in detecting left ventricular hypertrophy compared to echocardiography. METHODS This cohort study recruited young strokes who had undergone brain imaging, electrocardiography and transthoracic echocardiography at baseline. The modified Poisson regression model examined baseline correlates for left ventricular hypertrophy. The National Institute of Health Stroke Scale assessed stroke severity and the modified Rankin Scale assessed outcomes to 30-days. Performance of electrical voltage criterions was estimated using receiver operator characteristics. RESULTS We enrolled 101 stroke participants. Brain imaging revealed ischemic strokes in 60 (59.4%) and those with intracerebral hemorrhage, 33 (86.8%) were localized to the basal ganglia. Left ventricular hypertrophy was present in 76 (75.3%:95%CI 65.7%-83.3%), and 30 (39.5%) and 28 (36.8%) had moderate or severe hypertrophy respectively. Young adults with premorbid or a new diagnosis of hypertension were more likely to have left ventricular hypertrophy, 47 (61.8%), and 26 (34.2%). On multivariable analysis, left ventricular hypertrophy was independently associated with not being on anti-hypertensive medications among hypertensives participants {adjusted risk ratio 1.4 (95%CI:1.04-1.94). The mean National Institute of Health Stroke score was 18 and 30-day mortality was 42 (43.3%). The sensitivity and specificity for Sokolow-Lyon in detecting left ventricular hypertrophy was 27% and 78%, and for Cornell was 32% and 52% respectively. CONCLUSIONS We identified a high proportion of left ventricular hypertrophy in young adults with stroke associated with chronic undertreated hypertension. While the study methodology does not allow us to determine causation, this association and knowledge of pathophysiological processes supports the notion that chronic hypertension is a major risk factor for young strokes associated with high mortality. Our findings did not support the use of the electrical voltage criteria for detecting left ventricular hypertrophy. We recommend low cost interventions like blood pressure screening and treatment to reduce this burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Shali Matuja
- Department of Internal Medicine, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O Box 1464, Mwanza, Tanzania.
| | - Patricia Munseri
- Department of Internal Medicine, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Candida Moshiro
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Khuzeima Khanbhai
- Department of Cardiology, Jakaya Kikwete Cardiac Institute, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Karim Mahawish
- Department of Internal Medicine, Midcentral District Health Board, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Abiodun A, Oladimeji A, Bamidele T, Adewole A, Mayowa O. Prevalence of ECG abnormalities among adults with metabolic syndrome in a Nigerian Teaching Hospital. Afr Health Sci 2019; 19:2829-2838. [PMID: 32127858 PMCID: PMC7040350 DOI: 10.4314/ahs.v19i4.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Co-existence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and electrocardiography (ECG) abnormalities heightens the risk of sudden cardiac death. However, there is a gap in evidence of how ECG changes cluster among continental Africans with or without MetS. METHODS We included 491 participants with interpretable ECG tracings who were consecutively recruited into the Cardiovascular Risk Prediction Registry (CRP). CRP is a registry of newly presenting patients into cardiology clinic of the University College Hospital, Nigeria, with a main objective of cardiovascular risk stratification to prevent cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Using the International Diabetic Federation (IDF) criteria they were divided into those with metabolic syndrome and non-metabolic syndrome. RESULTS Four hundred and ninety-one participants comprising 48.3% women with mean age 53.72±15.2 years who met the IDF criteria with complete ECG interpretations were analyzed with 44.2% (men 38.6%; women 50.2%) of the participants having MetS while 74% had ECG abnormalities. Compared to women, men had higher mean serum total cholesterol, creatinine, smoking, and alcohol use, family history of hypertension and diabetes mellitus, QT prolongation, LVH plus or minus strain pattern, and ECG abnormalities in general. Women were heavier, had higher heart rate and proportions of MetS. ECG findings among those with or without MetS were not significantly different. In men, IDF metabolic score was associated with conduction abnormalities (p=0.039) and combined ECG abnormality (p=0.042) which became more significant with an exclusion of QT prolongation (p=0.004). Also, IDF abdominal obesity was associated with QT prolongation (p=0.017), combined ECG abnormality (p=0.034) while HDLc correlated with ECG abnormalities (0.037) in men. There was no significant associations of components of metabolic syndrome with ECG abnormalities among women. CONCLUSION There was a high prevalence of MetS and abnormal ECG among the studied population. Abnormal ECG findings were more common in men with no differential association in people with or without MetS. However, a significant association existed between certain components of MetS and ECG abnormalities in men only. Male gender and HDLc were independent predictors of ECG Abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeoye Abiodun
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan
| | | | | | - Adebiyi Adewole
- University College Hospital and College of Medicine, Department of Medicine
| | - Owolabi Mayowa
- College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Neurology Unit, Department of Medicine
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Adeoye AM, Ovbiagele B, Akinyemi JO, Ogah OS, Akinyemi R, Gebregziabher M, Wahab K, Fakunle AG, Akintunde A, Adebayo O, Aje A, Tiwari HK, Arnett D, Agyekum F, Appiah LT, Amusa G, Olunuga TO, Onoja A, Sarfo FS, Akpalu A, Jenkins C, Lackland D, Owolabi L, Komolafe M, Faniyan MM, Arulogun O, Obiako R, Owolabi M. Echocardiographic Abnormalities and Determinants of 1-Month Outcome of Stroke Among West Africans in the SIREN Study. J Am Heart Assoc 2019; 8:e010814. [PMID: 31142178 PMCID: PMC6585359 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.118.010814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Background Little is known about the relationship between echocardiographic abnormalities and outcome among patients with acute stroke. We investigated the pattern and association of baseline echocardiographic variables with 1‐month disability and mortality among patients with stroke in the SIREN (Stroke Investigative Research and Education Network) study. Methods and Results We enrolled and followed up consecutive 1020 adult patients with acute stroke with baseline transthoracic echocardiography from west Africa. To explore the relationship between echocardiographic variables and 1‐month disability (using modified Rankin scale >3) and fatality, regression models were fitted. Relative risks were computed with 95% CIs. The participants comprised 60% men with a mean age of 59.2±14.6 years. Ischemic stroke was associated with smaller aortic root diameter (30.2 versus 32.5, P=0.018) and septal (16.8 versus 19.1, P<0.001) and posterior wall thickness at systole (18.9 versus 21.5, P=0.004). Over 90% of patients with stroke had abnormal left ventricular (LV) geometry with eccentric hypertrophy predominating (56.1%). Of 13 candidate variables investigated, only baseline abnormal LV geometry (concentric hypertrophy) was weakly associated with 1‐month disability (unadjusted relative risk, 1.80; 95% CI, 0.97–5.73). Severe LV systolic dysfunction was significantly associated with increased 1‐month mortality (unadjusted relative risk, 3.05; 95% CI, 1.36–6.83). Conclusions Nine of 10 patients with acute stroke had abnormal LV geometry and a third had systolic dysfunction. Severe LV systolic dysfunction was significantly associated with 1 month mortality. Larger studies are required to establish the independent effect and unravel predictive accuracy of this association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abiodun M Adeoye
- 1 Center for Genomic and Precision Medicine University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
| | - Bruce Ovbiagele
- 2 Department of Neurology University of California San Francisco CA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mayowa Owolabi
- 1 Center for Genomic and Precision Medicine University of Ibadan Ibadan Nigeria
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Owolabi M, Sarfo FS, Akinyemi R, Gebreyohanns M, Ovbiagele B. The Sub-Saharan Africa Conference on Stroke (SSACS): An idea whose time has come. J Neurol Sci 2019; 400:194-198. [PMID: 30991160 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2019.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where an unprecedented rise in stroke burden is currently raging, has the highest age-standardized stroke incidence, stroke prevalence, and stroke mortality rates. This is in sharp contrast to the relative decline in stroke incidence in high-income countries over the past four decades through better awareness and control of vascular risk factors. Compared to other groups, Africans tend to have a higher risk of stroke, higher percentage of the hemorrhagic type and much poorer outcomes. Indeed, stroke levies a heavy toll on the developing SSA economy by affecting a relatively younger age group. In this commentary, we examine the disproportionately high burden of stroke in the setting of grossly inadequate resources and evidence-based interventions. We propose an annual pan-regional stroke conference (starting in 2020) to harness global resources and local talent with the goal of galvanizing action to tackle this escalating burden. We anticipate that a successful conference series could become a rallying point for the eventual establishment of an African Stroke Organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayowa Owolabi
- Department of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; Center for Genomic and Precision Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
| | | | - Rufus Akinyemi
- Center for Genomic and Precision Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | | | - Bruce Ovbiagele
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, USA
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