3D printed milk protein food simulant: Improving the printing performance of milk protein concentration by incorporating whey protein isolate

Novel heterogeneous 3D printing process of protein-polysaccharide gel containing orange juice sacs: Optimization of material properties and printing parameters

The rapid advancement of 3D food printing technology for heterogeneous systems has been driven by increasing consumer demand for personalized meals, enhanced nutrition, and overall wellness. By using κ-carrageenan (KC), konjac gum (KGM), and whey protein isolate (WPI), this study developed a thermoreversible composite gel (WPI-KC-KGM) for temperature-controlled extrusion, focusing on the effect of the KC to KGM ratio on the composite gel's rheological properties and printability. Rheological tests indicated that KGM reduced the thermal sensitivity of KC, with the K7M3 formulation being optimal for minimizing sensitivity while maintaining thermoreversibility. Printing accuracy analysis revealed that K5M5 samples achieved the best pore area (1.392 cm2) and fidelity (96.66 %), while K7M3 samples exhibited the highest support similarity (95.78 %). For the WPI-KC-KGM (K7M3) composite gel containing 3 wt% orange juice sacs, the recommended printing settings are a nozzle diameter of 2.5 mm, a speed of 20 mm/s, and a temperature of 40 °C, resulting in aesthetically pleasing and clearly defined planar and stereoscopic products.

Effect of Non-Meat Protein Addition on the 3D Printing Performance of Chicken Meat

In this study, three types of non-meat proteins, including soybean protein, wheat gluten, and whey protein, were used as additives to improve the 3D printing performance of chicken meat. The effects of non-meat proteins on rheological behavior, textural properties, moisture characteristics, and the microstructure of gels were investigated. Chicken meat paste without non-meat proteins added was taken as a control. Rheological results showed that the addition of non-meat proteins increased the apparent viscosity and the storage modulus of chicken meat paste. Textural properties of gels, including hardness, chewiness, cohesiveness, springiness, and resilience were also improved. The microstructure of gels with non-meat protein addition became denser and more compact, with improved connectivity. Nuclear magnetic resonance showed that the signals of bound water, immobilized water, and free water moved to the left towards lower relaxation time (p < 0.05) and part of immobile water and free water changed to bound water. The samples containing 15% soybean protein exhibited good shape-forming and shape-keeping capacities. There was an obvious increase in hardness (1991.40 ± 88.22 g), springiness (0.92 ± 0.00), cohesiveness (0.72 ± 0.01), gumminess (1299.14 ± 21.21), and resilience (0.34 ± 0.01) in these samples. The cooking loss of samples containing 15% soybean protein was 2.46 ± 0.36%, which was significantly lower than that of other treatments (p < 0.05). In summary, 15% soybean protein-added samples showed great potential for 3D printing.

Casein-grape seed proanthocyanidins complexes stabilized Pickering emulsion gels based on Lycium Barbarum seed oil with excellent mechanical properties and oxidation resistance

Pickering emulsion gels received extensive attention in encapsulating fat-soluble substances such as Lycium barbarum seed oil (LBSO). However, the gels presented poor mechanical properties, otherwise, their physical encapsulation cannot inhibit lipid peroxidation. Herein, grape seed proanthocyanidins (OPCs) and casein (CAS) complexes interacted through hydrogen and covalent bonds were proposed to build Pickering emulsion gels and encapsulate LBSO, which changed the secondary structures of CAS and further enhanced emulsifying ability, oxidation resistance, and gelling performance. The CAS-OPCs gels had better microstructures and mechanical properties due to the enhancement of hydrogen and covalent interactions. Furthermore, gels with OPC contents of 8.00 mg/mL had performance in 3D printing. And gels reduced the peroxide value of LBSO (9.33±0.20 to 1.39±0.22 mmol/kg) after heating. This study helps reveal the possible mechanisms of OPCs on gels and provides a reference for the application and research of OPCs and CAS composites in Pickering emulsion gels.

3D-Printed Protein-Based Bioplastics with Tunable Mechanical Properties Using Glycerol or Hyperbranched Poly(glycerol)s as Plasticizers

Protein-based materials can be engineered to derive utility from the structures and functions of the incorporated proteins. Modern methods of protein engineering bring promise of unprecedented control over molecular and network design, which will enable new and improved functionalities in materials that incorporate proteins as functional building blocks. For these advantages to be fully realized, there is a need for robust methods for producing protein-based networks, as well as methods for tuning their mechanical properties. Light-based 3D-printing techniques afford high-resolution fabrication capability with unparalleled design freedom in an inexpensive and decentralized capacity. This work features 3D-printed serum albumin-based bioplastics with mechanical properties modulated through the incorporation of glycerol or hyperbranched poly(glycerol)s (HPGs) as plasticizers. These materials capitalize upon important features of serum albumin, including its low intrinsic viscosity, high aqueous solubility, and relatively low cost. The incorporation of glycerol or HPGs of different sizes resulted in softer and more ductile bioplastics than those obtained natively without additives. These bioplastics showed shape-memory behavior and could be used to fabricate functional objects. These materials are accessible, possess minimal chemical hazards, and can be used for fabricating rigid and strong as well as soft and ductile parts using inexpensive commercial 3D printers.

Development of special nutritional balanced food 3D printing products based on the mixing of animals/plants materials: research progress, applications, and trends

Food 3D printing brings food processing technology into the digital age. This is a vast field that can provide entertainment experience, personalized food and specific nutritional needs. However, the limited availability of suitable food raw materials has restricted the extensive use of 3D food printing processing technique. The search for novel nutritious and healthy food materials that meet the demand for 3D food printing processing technology is core of the sustainable development of this emerging technology. The printing mechanism, precise nutrition, future outlooks and challenges of 3D food printing technology application in hybrid plant and animal food materials are also analyzed.The results demonstrate that selecting suitable animal and plant materials and mixing them into 3D food printing ingredients without adding food additives can result in printable inks, which can also improve the nutritive value and eating quality of 3D food printed products. Sustainability of novel food materials such as animal cell culture meat and microbial protein mixed with conventional food materials to realize 3D printed food can be a potential research direction. Some other issues should also be considered in future research, such as evaluation of the nutritional efficacy of the product, product stability, shelf life, production efficiency and convenience of process operation.

Effect of Haematococcus pluvialis addition on the rheological property and 3D printing performance of soy protein isolate- and wheat gluten-based pastes

To improve the 3D printing performance of plant protein-based pastes, varying mass fractions of Haematococcus pluvialis (HP) were mixed with soybean protein isolate (SPI) and wheat gluten (WG). The rheological characteristics, microstructure, water distribution, and 3D printing suitability of the composite pastes were evaluated. Results demonstrated that as the HP additions increased, the apparent viscosity and energy storage modulus decreased, exhibiting ameliorative shear-thinning behavior and elastic deformation capacity. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance and confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that increasing HP enhanced water mobility and resulted in a more uniform protein structure, improving fluidity. 3D-printed Chinese character and cylindrical models manifested that the paste consisted of pure SPI-WG was hard to be extruded from the nozzle, while both HP (0.7) and HP (1.0) additions were suitable for printing. Notably, when the mass ratio of SPI:WG:HP was 1:1:0.7, the diameter of the extruded strands (0.87 mm) was the most closest to the nozzle diameter (0.84 mm), and the printed object maintained stability over 80 min with height and diameter variations <2%, implying the best printing fidelity. By employing HP as a novel, nutrient-rich additive, this work not only enhanced the printability and nutritional profile of SPI-WG based pastes, but also offered a pioneering framework for developing future customizable, high-quality 3D-printed foods that better address consumer needs. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This research provides a method for improving the 3D printing performance of plant-based pastes by incorporating Haematococcus pluvialis. The findings can be applied in the food industry to develop bio-inks for producing high-quality, nutritionally enhanced 3D-printed foods with better printing precision and stability, supporting the growing demand for personalized nutrition and functional foods.

Characteristics of Food Printing Inks and Their Impact on Selected Product Properties

Three-dimensional printing, or additive manufacturing, produces three-dimensional objects using a digital model. Its utilisation has been observed across various industries, including the food industry. Technology offers a wide range of possibilities in this field, including creating innovative products with unique compositions, shapes, and textures. A significant challenge in 3D printing is the development of the optimal ink composition. These inks must possess the appropriate rheology and texture for printing and meet nutritional and sensory requirements. The rheological properties of inks play a pivotal role in the printing process, influencing the formation of stable structures. This article comprehensively characterises food inks, distinguishing two primary categories and their respective subgroups. The first category encompasses non-natively extrudable inks, including plant-based inks derived from fruits and vegetables and meat-based inks. The second category comprises natively extrudable inks, encompassing dairy-based, hydrogel-based, and confectionary-based inks. The product properties of rheology, texture, fidelity, and printing stability are then discussed. Finally, the innovative use of food inks is shown.

Effects of different hydrocolloids on the 3D printing and thermal stability of chicken paste

This study investigated the effect of different hydrocolloids on the improvement of the printability and post-processing stability of minced chicken meat, each hydrocolloid was prepared with 1 % formulation and compared with the control. The effects of these hydrocolloids on the rheological properties of chicken mince and complex model printing capability were explored separately, while the cooking loss and microstructure changes of the samples before and after heating were analyzed. The results showed that the chicken mince gel containing carrageenan was more suitable for printing, increased the yield stress and apparent viscosity of the samples, and the printing process was easier to mold. In addition, carrageenan increased the hardness of the samples, and the microstructures were compact and changed little during the heating process, and the water was locked in the gel matrix, reducing shape changes during the heating process. The use of hydrocolloids improves the stability of post-processing of chicken 3D printing.

Protein and protein-polysaccharide composites-based 3D printing: The properties, roles and opportunities in future functional foods

The food industry is undergoing a significant transformation with the advancement of 3D technology. Researchers in the field are increasingly interested in using protein and protein-polysaccharide composite materials for 3D printing applications. However, maintaining nutritional and sensory properties while guaranteeing printability of these materials is challenging. This review examines the commonly used protein and composite materials in food 3D printing and their roles in printing inks. This review also outlines the essential properties required for 3D printing, including extrudability, appropriate viscoelasticity, thixotropic properties, and gelation properties. Furthermore, it explores the wide range of potential applications for 3D printing technology in novel functional foods such as space food, dysphagia food, kid's food, meat analogue, and other specialized food products.

Personalized nutrition with 3D-printed foods: A systematic review on the impact of different additives

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is one of the world's top novel technologies in the food industry due to the production of food in different conditions and places (restaurants, homes, catering, schools, for dysphagia patients, and astronauts' food) and the production of personalized food. Nowadays, 3D printers are used in the main food industries, including meat, dairy, cereals, fruits, and vegetables, and have been able to produce successfully on a small scale. However, due to the expansion of this technology, it has challenges such as high-scale production, selection of printable food, formulation optimization, and food production according to the consumer's opinion. Food additives (gums, enzymes, proteins, starches, polyphenols, spices, probiotics, algae, edible insects, oils, salts, vitamins, flavors, and by-products) are one of the main components of the formulation that can be effective in food production according to the consumer's attitude. Food additives can have the highest impact on textural and sensory characteristics, which can be effective in improving consumer attitudes and reducing food neophobia. Most of the 3D-printed food cannot be printed without the presence of hydrocolloids, because the proper flow of the selected formulation is one of the key factors in improving the quality of the printed product. Functional additives such as probiotics can be useful for specific purposes and functional food production. Food personalization for specific diseases with 3D printing technology requires a change in the formulation, which is closely related to the selection of correct food additives. For example, the production of 3D-printed plant-based steaks is not possible without the presence of additives, or the production of food for dysphagia patients is possible in many cases by adding hydrocolloids. In general, additives can improve the textural, rheological, nutritional, and sensory characteristics of 3D printed foods; so, investigating the mechanism of the additives on all the characteristics of the printed product can provide a wide perspective for industrial production and future studies.

The synergistic effect of κ-carrageenan and l-lysine on the 3D printability of yellow flesh peach gels: The importance of material elasticity in the printing process

This study investigated the effect of κ-carrageenan and l-lysine on the physical, chemical and textural properties of yellow flesh peaches and their suitability for 3D printing. The addition of κ-carrageenan and l-lysine was found to improve the apparent viscosity, elasticity, gel strength, and Young's modulus of the yellow flesh peach with κ-carrageenan and l-lysine gels (PCLG) and increase the minimum piston pressure required for 3D printing, thereby improving the printing performance. Optimum levels of κ-carrageenan and l-lysine (0.1 mmol/mL and 3.42 × 10-2 mmol/mL, respectively) were found to enhance mechanical strength, viscoelasticity and print fidelity. On the other hand, when the addition of κ-carrageenan is 0.1 mmol/mL, the addition of l-lysine causes an increase in the G0 value and a decrease in the η0 value of the PCLG according to Burger's model, indicating a transition from viscosity to elasticity and an increase in maximum extrusion force, while the apparent viscosity does not change significantly. The results of 3D printing showed that when the addition of κ-carrageenan and l-lysine reached 0.1 mmol/mL and 6.84 × 10-2 mmol/mL, respectively, the PCLG could not be smoothly extruded, indicating that elasticity also plays an important role during the extrusion process of the mixed gel.

Elaboration of dimensional quality in 3D-printed food: Key factors in process steps

Three-dimensional (3D) printing has been applied to produce food products with intricate and fancy shapes. Dimensional quality, such as dimensional stability, surface smoothness, shape fidelity, and resolution, are essential for the attractive appearance of 3D-printed food. Various methods have been extensively studied and proposed to control the dimensional quality of printed foods, but few papers focused on comprehensively and deeply summarizing the key factors of the dimensional quality of printed products at each stage-before, during, and after printing-of the 3D printing process. Therefore, the effects of pretreatment, printing parameters and rheological properties, and cooking and storage on the dimensional quality of the printed foods are summarized, and solutions are also provided for improving the dimensional quality of the printed products at each step. Before printing, incorporating additives or applying physical, chemical, or biological pretreatments can improve the dimensional quality of carbohydrate-based, protein-based, or lipid-based printed food. During printing, controlling the printing parameters and modifying the rheological properties of inks can affect the shape of printed products. Furthermore, post-processing is essential for some printed foods. After printing, changing formulations, incorporating additives, and selecting post-processing methods and conditions may help achieve the desired shape of 3D-printed or 4D-printed products during cooking. Additives help in the storage stability of printed food. Finally, various opportunities have been proposed to regulate the dimensional properties of 3D-printed structures. This review provides detailed guidelines for researchers and users of 3D printers to produce various printed foods with the desired shapes and appearances.

Birth of dairy 4.0: Opportunities and challenges in adoption of fourth industrial revolution technologies in the production of milk and its derivatives

Embracing innovation and emerging technologies is becoming increasingly important to address the current global challenges facing many food industry sectors, including the dairy industry. Growing literature shows that the adoption of technologies of the fourth industrial revolution (named Industry 4.0) has promising potential to bring about breakthroughs and new insights and unlock advancement opportunities in many areas of the food manufacturing sector. This article discusses the current knowledge and recent trends and progress on the application of Industry 4.0 innovations in the dairy industry. First, the "Dairy 4.0" concept, inspired by Industry 4.0, is introduced and its enabling technologies are determined. Second, relevant examples of the use of Dairy 4.0 technologies in milk and its derived products are presented. Finally, conclusions and future perspectives are given. The results revealed that robotics, 3D printing, Artificial Intelligence, the Internet of Things, Big Data, and blockchain are the main enabling technologies of Dairy 4.0. These advanced technologies are being progressively adopted in the dairy sector, from farm to table, making significant and profound changes in the production of milk, cheese, and other dairy products. It is expected that, in the near future, new digital innovations will emerge, and greater implementations of Dairy 4.0 technologies is likely to be achieved, leading to more automation and optimization of this dynamic food sector.

Physico-chemical and Textural Properties of 3D Printed Plant-based and Hybrid Soft Meat Analogs

This study investigated the physico-chemical and textural properties of 3D-printed pea protein-only and pea protein-chicken-based hybrid meat analogs. Both pea protein isolate (PPI)-only and hybrid cooked meat analogs had a similar moisture content of approximately 70%, which was similar to that of chicken mince. However, the protein content increased significantly with the amount of chicken in the hybrid paste undergoing 3D printing and cooking. Significant differences were observed in the hardness values of the non-printed cooked pastes and the 3D printed cooked counterparts, suggesting that the 3D printing process reduces the hardness of the samples and is a suitable method to produce a soft meal, and has significant potential in elderly health care. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that adding chicken to the plant protein matrix led to better fiber formation. PPI itself was not able to form any fibers merely by 3D printing and cooking in boiling water. Protein-protein interactions were also studied through the protein solubility test, which indicated that hydrogen bonding was the major bonding that contributed to the structure formation in cooked printed meat analogs. In addition, disulfide bonding was correlated with improved fibrous structures, as observed through SEM.

Advances in the Potential Application of 3D Food Printing to Enhance Elderly Nutritional Dietary Intake

The contradiction between the growing demand from consumers for "nutrition & personalized" food and traditional industrialized food production has consistently been a problem in the elderly diet that researchers face and discuss. Three-dimensional (3D) food printing could potentially offer a solution to this problem. This article reviews the recent research on 3D food printing, mainly including the use of different sources of protein to improve the performance of food ink printing, high internal phase emulsion or oleogels as a fat replacement and nutrition delivery system, and functional active ingredients and the nutrition delivery system. In our opinion, 3D food printing is crucial for improving the appetite and dietary intake of the elderly. The critical obstacles of 3D-printed food for the elderly regarding energy supplements, nutrition balance, and even the customization of the recipe in a meal are discussed in this paper. By combining big data and artificial intelligence technology with 3D food printing, comprehensive, personalized, and customized geriatric foods, according to the individual traits of each elderly consumer, will be realized via food raw materials-appearance-processing methods. This article provides a theoretical basis and development direction for future 3D food printing for the elderly.

Rheological properties, gel properties and 3D printing performance of soy protein isolate gel inks added with different types of apricot polysaccharides

A soybean protein isolate (SPI)-apricot polysaccharide gel with hypolipidemic activity that can be used for 3D printing was prepared and the mechanism of its gel formation was studied in this work. The results demonstrated that adding apricot polysaccharide to SPI could effectively improve the bound water content, viscoelastic properties and rheological properties of the gels. Low-field NMR, FT-IR spectroscopy and surface hydrophobicity confirmed that the interactions between SPI and apricot polysaccharide were mainly realized by electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding. Furthermore, adding modified polysaccharide treated by ultrasonic-assisted Fenton method to SPI on the basis of low-concentration apricot polysaccharide contributed to improving the 3D printing accuracy and stability of the gel. Consequently, the gel formed by adding apricot polysaccharide (0.5 %, m/v) and modified polysaccharide (0.1 %, m/v) to SPI had the best hypolipidemic activity (the binding rate of sodium taurocholate and sodium glycocholate were 75.33 % and 72.86 %, respectively) and 3D printing characteristics.

Construction of 3D printed meat analogs from plant-based proteins: improving the printing performance of soy protein- and gluten-based pastes facilitated by rice protein

Additive technology (3D printing) is increasingly being used to produce plant-based meat analogs. However, there are several challenges to fabricating meat analogs using this technology: (i) the protein content in the final printed product is often too low to match the nutritional profile of real meat; (ii) it is often difficult to accurately mimic the textural and structural attributes of real meat using existing plant protein edible inks. In this study, the rheological properties and printing performance of edible inks produced from soy protein isolate (SPI), wheat gluten (WG), and rice protein (RP) were investigated. Our goal was to mix SPI, WG, RP powders to develop a high-protein edible ink (25% of total dry matter content) that can be used to create 3D-printed meat analogs. The rheological properties, moisture distribution, texture, microstructure, and printing performance (fidelity and stability) of protein pastes with different SPI-WG-to-RP ratios were measured. These protein-enriched inks exhibited pseudoplastic behavior with viscoelastic properties. The apparent viscosity and storage modulus of these pastes decreased with increasing rice protein proportion, which improved their 3D printing performance, such as hardness, support force, and plasticization. These edible inks prepared by mixed protein may be useful for 3D printing of plant-based foods.

Three-Dimensional Printing Properties of Polysaccharide Hydrocolloids-Unrinsed Sturgeon Surimi Complex Hydrogels

Herein, the microstructure and mechanical properties of hydrogels consisting of unrinsed sturgeon surimi (URSS) and plant-derived polysaccharides such as κ-carrageenan (KC), konjac gum (KG), xanthan gum (XG), guar gum (GG) and sodium alginate (SA), were studied by texture analysis, rheological measurement and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Rheological results showed that the apparent viscosity, storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G″) of URSS increased by addition of KC, KG, GG and SA. The gel strength of resultant surimi products fabricated with KG/URSS mixture was significantly higher than that of other groups. KG could significantly improve the hardness (44.14 ± 1.14 N), chewiness (160.34 ± 8.33 mJ) and cohesiveness (0.56 ± 0.02) of the unrinsed surimi gel. Adding SA and KC had no significant effect on the textural characteristics of printed gels. However, an apparent decrease in the relevant mechanical properties of printed hydrogels was observed when XG and GG were added into surimi. SEM indicated that the incorporation of KG and KC could further integrate the gel structure of URSS as compared to hindering the cross-linking of surimi protein by XG and GG, which were in accordance with gel strength and water-holding capacity. These results provided useful information to regulate the 3D printing performance in functionalized surimi-based material.

The effects of whey protein fibrils on the linear and non-linear rheological properties of a gluten-free dough

The increasing awareness of the celiac disease, an autoimmune disorder caused by the consumption of products containing gluten, has led to a growing interest in the development of gluten-free bakery products. In this study, whey protein fibrils (WPFs) were incorporated to mimic the fibrous network of gluten. The rheological properties and microstructure of the developed gluten-free doughs were evaluated and compared with gluten doughs. Protein fibrils were prepared by heating a whey protein isolate (WPI) solution at 80°C in an acidic environment with low salt concentration, and then the fibril lengths were adjusted by leveling up the solution pH to 3.5 and 7. The dimensions of the fibrils were measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Rice and potato starches were mixed with fibrils, WPI, gluten, or without protein, to form different doughs for further investigation. Shear tests, including stress sweep, frequency sweep, and creep recovery, were performed to study the viscoelastic properties of doughs under small or large deformation. The strain-hardening properties of doughs under biaxial extension were studied by the lubricated squeezing flow method. The microstructure of the doughs was characterized by cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM). Compared with doughs prepared with WPI and no proteins, doughs incorporating fibrils showed comparable linear viscoelasticity to gluten dough tested with stress sweep, frequency sweep, and creep recovery in the linear viscoelastic region. More differences between the protein fibril doughs were revealed in the rheological properties in the non-linear region. Creep recovery parameters, such as compliance, elastic moduli during the creep, and recovery stages of gluten dough, were like those of WPF pH7 dough, but significantly different from those of the WPF pH3.5 dough. Strain-hardening properties were found in the WPF pH7 dough, although not in WPF pH3.5 dough. Microstructural characterization showed that both fibrils prepared with the different conditions formed a continuous protein phase for the improvement of dough cohesiveness, but the structure of the phase was different between the two fibrils. To summarize, whey protein fibril at pH 7 seemed to have the potential of being used as an ingredient with similar functions to gluten in gluten-free bakery products.

Defects in 3D/4D food printing and their possible solutions: A comprehensive review

3D food printing has recently attracted significant attention, both from academic and industrial researchers, due to its ability to manufacture customized products in such terms as size, shape, texture, color, and nutrition to meet demands of individual consumers. 4D printing, which is a technique that allows evolution of various characteristics/properties of 3D printed objects over time through external stimulation, has also been gaining more attention. In order to produce defect-free printed objects via both 3D and 4D printing, it is necessary to first identify the causes of defects and then their mitigation strategies. Comprehensive review on these important issues is nevertheless missing. The purpose of this review is to investigate causes and characteristics of defects occurring during and/or after 3D food printing, with a focus on how different factors affect the printing accuracy. Various techniques that can potentially minimize or eliminate printing defects and produce high-quality 3D/4D printed food products without the need for time-consuming trial and error printing experiments are critically discussed. Guidelines to avoid defects to improve the efficiency of future 3D/4D printed food production are given.

Towards the Development of 3D-Printed Food: A Rheological and Mechanical Approach

Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, has raised interest in many areas, such as the food industry. In food, 3D printing can be used to personalize nutrition and customize the sensorial characteristics of the final product. The rheological properties of the material are the main parameters that impact the 3D-printing process and are crucial to assuring the printability of formulations, although a clear relationship between these properties and printability has not been studied in depth. In addition, an understanding of the mechanical properties of 3D-printed food is crucial for consumer satisfaction, as they are related to the texture of food products. In 3D-printing technologies, each manufacturing parameter has an impact on the resulting mechanical properties; therefore, a thorough characterization of these parameters is necessary prior to the consumption of any 3D-printed food. This review focuses on the rheological and mechanical properties of printed food materials by exploring cutting-edge research working towards developing printed food for personalized nutrition.