Nanoformulations of small molecule protein tyrosine kinases inhibitors potentiate targeted cancer therapy

EphA2 specific chimeric antigen receptor engineered T cells for the treatment of prostate cancer

Erythropoietin-producing hepatocyte receptor A2 (EphA2) is an attractive target for immunotherapy due to its high expression in a variety of solid tumors including prostate cancer. Among various types of immunotherapeutics, chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy has made promising progress in hematological and solid tumors. Here, we detected the expression of EphA2 in prostate cancer cells and developed a second-generation CAR targeting EphA2 with CD28 as a co-stimulatory receptor to explore its tumor suppressive potential for prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo. EphA2 was highly expressed on the surface of PC3 and DU145 cells. EphA2 CART cells effectively inhibited prostate cancer growth in an antigen-dependent manner in vitro and in vivo. In addition, tumor cells could stimulate the proliferation of CAR-T cells and the release of cytokine IFN-γ in vitro. These findings shed light on EphA2 as a potential target for prostate cancer, promising EphA2 specific CAR-T cells for the treatment of prostate cancer.

Developing targeted therapeutics for hepatocellular carcinoma: a critical assessment of promising phase II agents

INTRODUCTION

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the sixth most common cancer worldwide and the first for primary liver tumors. In recent years greater therapeutic advancement was represented by employment of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) either in monotherapy or in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs).

AREAS COVERED

Major attention was given to target therapies in the last couple of years, especially in those currently under phase II trials. Priority was given either to combinations of novel ICI and TKIs or those targeting alternative mutations of major carcinogenic pathways.

EXPERT OPINION

As TKIs are playing a more crucial role in HCC therapeutic strategies, it is fundamental to further expand molecular testing and monitoring of acquired resistances. Despite the recent advancement in both laboratory and clinical studies, further research is necessary to face the discrepancy in clinical practice.

Enhancing cancer therapy: the integration of oncolytic virus therapy with diverse treatments

As one of the significant challenges to human health, cancer has long been a focal point in medical treatment. With ongoing advancements in the field of medicine, numerous methodologies for cancer therapy have emerged, among which oncolytic virus therapy has gained considerable attention. However, oncolytic viruses still exhibit limitations. Combining them with various therapies can further enhance the efficacy of cancer treatment, offering renewed hope for patients. In recent research, scientists have recognized the promising prospect of amalgamating oncolytic virus therapy with diverse treatments, potentially surmounting the restrictions of singular approaches. The central concept of this combined therapy revolves around leveraging oncolytic virus to incite localized tumor inflammation, augmenting the immune response for immunotherapeutic efficacy. Through this approach, the patient's immune system can better recognize and eliminate cancer cells, simultaneously reducing tumor evasion mechanisms against the immune system. This review delves deeply into the latest research progress concerning the integration of oncolytic virus with diverse treatments and its role in various types of cancer therapy. We aim to analyze the mechanisms, advantages, potential challenges, and future research directions of this combination therapy. By extensively exploring this field, we aim to instill renewed hope in the fight against cancer.

Efficient treatment of colon cancer with codelivery of TRAIL and imatinib by liposomes

To solve the problem of resistance of tumor cells to TRAIL and the inevitable side effects of imatinib during treatment, we successfully prepared a kind of multifunctional liposome that encapsulated imatinib in its internal water phase and inserted TRAIL on its membrane in this study, which named ITLPs. The liposomes appeared uniform spherical and the particle size was approximately 150 nm. ITLPs showed high accumulation in TRAIL-resistance cells and HT-29 tumor-bearing mice model. In vitro cytotoxicity assay results showed that the killing activity of HT-29 cells treated with ITLPs increased by 50% and confirmed that this killing activity was mediated by the apoptosis pathway. Through mechanism studies, it was found that ITLPs arrested up to 32.3% of cells in phase M to exert anti-tumor effects. In vivo anti-tumor study showed that ITLPs achieved 61.8% tumor suppression and little toxicity in the HT-29 tumor-bearing mice model. Overall results demonstrated that codelivery of imatinib and TRAIL via liposomes may be a prospective method in the treatment of the TRAIL-resistance tumor.

Novel sights on therapeutic, prognostic, and diagnostics aspects of non-coding RNAs in glioblastoma multiforme

Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) is the primary brain tumor and accounts for 200,000 deaths each year worldwide. The standard therapy includes surgical resection followed by temozolomide (TMZ)-based chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The survival period of GBM patients is only 12-15 months. Therefore, novel treatment modalities for GBM treatment are urgently needed. Mounting evidence reveals that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) were involved in regulating gene expression, the pathophysiology of GBM, and enhancing therapeutic outcomes. The combinatory use of ncRNAs, chemotherapeutic drugs, and tumor suppressor gene expression induction might provide an innovative, alternative therapeutic approach for managing GBM. Studies have highlighted the role of Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) in prognosis and diagnosis. Dysregulation of ncRNAs is observed in virtually all tumor types, including GBMs. Studies have also indicated the blood-brain barrier (BBB) as a crucial factor that hinders chemotherapy. Although several nanoparticle-mediated drug deliveries were degrading effectively against GBM in vitro conditions. However, the potential to cross the BBB and optimum delivery of oligonucleotide RNA into GBM cells in the brain is currently under intense clinical trials. Despite several advances in molecular pathogenesis, GBM remains resistant to chemo and radiotherapy. Targeted therapies have less clinical benefit due to high genetic heterogeneity and activation of alternative pathways. Thus, identifying GBM-specific prognostic pathways, essential genes, and genomic aberrations provide several potential benefits as subtypes of GBM. Also, these approaches will provide insights into new strategies to overcome the heterogenous nature of GBM, which will eventually lead to successful therapeutic interventions toward precision medicine and precision oncology.

Optimization of Gefitinib-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier as a Biomedical Tool in the Treatment of Metastatic Lung Cancer

Gefitinib (GEF) is utilized in clinical settings for the treatment of metastatic lung cancer. However, premature drug release from nanoparticles in vivo increases the exposure of systemic organs to GEF. Herein, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) were utilized not only to avoid premature drug release but also due to their inherent lymphatic tropism. Therefore, the present study aimed to develop a GEF-NLC as a lymphatic drug delivery system with low drug release. Design of experiments was utilized to develop a stable GEF-NLC as a lymphatic drug delivery system for the treatment of metastatic lung cancer. The in vitro drug release of GEF from the prepared GEF-NLC formulations was studied to select the optimum formulation. MTT assay was utilized to study the cytotoxic activity of GEF-NLC compared to free GEF. The optimized GEF-NLC formulation showed favorable physicochemical properties: <300 nm PS, <0.2 PDI, <−20 ZP values with >90% entrapment efficiency. Interestingly, the prepared formulation was able to retain GEF with only ≈57% drug release within 24 h. Furthermore, GEF-NLC reduced the sudden exposure of cultured cells to GEF and produced the required cytotoxic effect after 48 and 72 h incubation time. Consequently, optimized formulation offers a promising approach to improve GEF’s therapeutic outcomes with reduced systemic toxicity in treating metastatic lung cancer.

Insights into Lipid-Based Delivery Nanosystems of Protein-Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors for Cancer Therapy

According to the WHO, cancer caused almost 10 million deaths worldwide in 2020, i.e., almost one in six deaths. Among the most common are breast, lung, colon and rectal and prostate cancers. Although the diagnosis is more perfect and spectrum of available drugs is large, there is a clear trend of an increase in cancer that ends fatally. A major advance in treatment was the introduction of gentler antineoplastics for targeted therapy-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Although they have undoubtedly revolutionized oncology and hematology, they have significant side effects and limited efficacy. In addition to the design of new TKIs with improved pharmacokinetic and safety profiles, and being more resistant to the development of drug resistance, high expectations are placed on the reformulation of TKIs into various drug delivery lipid-based nanosystems. This review provides an insight into the history of chemotherapy, a brief overview of the development of TKIs for the treatment of cancer and their mechanism of action and summarizes the results of the applications of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems, nanoemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers used as drug delivery systems of TKIs obtained in vitro and in vivo.

Oral delivery of carrier-free dual-drug nanocrystal self-assembled microspheres improved NAD+ bioavailability and attenuated cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury in mice

Nicotinamide riboside (NR), as a dietary supplement, can be converted to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) in cells to support mitochondrial energy metabolism. However, the efficacy of oral administrated NR is limited due to its quick degradation in circulation and low bioavailability in targeted organs. In this study, we fabricated nanocrystal self-assembled microspheres by Nano Spray Dryer for oral delivery of NR. The structure of NR and resveratrol (RES) nanocrystal self-assembled microspheres (NR/RESms) is confirmed by the morphology, chemical structure, and crystallization. The NR/RESms displayed restricted NR release at the gastric acid-mimic condition (<15% in the first 8 hours), while achieved accelerated NR release in an enteric-mimic environment (>46% within 8 hours). Oral administration of NR/RESms for 8 hours significantly elevated NAD+ levels in serum (169.88 nM versus 30.93 nM in the NR group, p < .01; and 66.89 nM in the NR + RES group, p < .05), and enhanced NAD+ abundance in multiple organs in mice, exhibiting an improved oral NAD+ bioavailability. In addition, without any serious adverse effects on major organs, oral delivery of NR/RESms attenuated myocardial infarction (15.82% versus 19.38% in the I/R + NR group and 20.76% in the I/R + NR + RES group) in a cardiac ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury mouse model. Therefore, our data supported that the NR/RESms is a promising candidate as NAD+ booster for oral administration.

Improving Outcomes of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: New Data and Ongoing Trials

Targeted therapies such as oral tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are the main therapeutic strategy effective for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Currently six tyrosine kinase inhibitors for HCC therapy have been approved. The newly approved first-line drug donafenib represent the major milestones in HCC therapeutics in recent years. However, drug resistance in HCC remains challenging due to random mutations in target receptors as well as downstream pathways. TKIs-based combinatorial therapies with immune checkpoint inhibitors such as PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies afford a promising strategy to further clinical application. Recent developments of nanoparticle-based TKI delivery techniques improve drug absorption and bioavailability, enhance efficient targeting delivery, prolonged circulation time, and reduce harmful side effects on normal tissues, which may improve the therapeutic efficacy of the TKIs. In this review, we summarize the milestones and recent progress in clinical trials of TKIs for HCC therapy. We also provide an overview of the novel nanoparticle-based TKI delivery techniques that enable efficient therapy.

Iterative Upgrading of Small Molecular Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors for EGFR Mutation in NSCLC: Necessity and Perspective

Molecular targeted therapy has been reported to have fewer adverse effects, and offer a more convenient route of administration, compared with conventional chemotherapy. With the development of sequencing technology, and research on the molecular biology of lung cancer, especially whole-genome information on non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), various therapeutic targets have been unveiled. Among the NSCLC-driving gene mutations, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations are the most common, and approximately 10% of Caucasian, and more than 50% of Asian, NSCLC patients have been found to have sensitive EGFR mutations. A variety of targeted therapeutic agents for EGFR mutations have been approved for clinical applications, or are undergoing clinical trials around the world. This review focuses on: the indications of approved small molecular kinase inhibitors for EGFR mutation-positive NSCLC; the mechanisms of drug resistance and the corresponding therapeutic strategies; the principles of reasonable and precision molecular structure; and the drug development discoveries of next-generation inhibitors for EGFR.

Nanotechnology of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Cancer Therapy: A Perspective

Nanotechnology is an important application in modern cancer therapy. In comparison with conventional drug formulations, nanoparticles ensure better penetration into the tumor mass by exploiting the enhanced permeability and retention effect, longer blood circulation times by a reduced renal excretion and a decrease in side effects and drug accumulation in healthy tissues. The most significant classes of nanoparticles (i.e., liposomes, inorganic and organic nanoparticles) are here discussed with a particular focus on their use as delivery systems for small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). A number of these new compounds (e.g., Imatinib, Dasatinib, Ponatinib) have been approved as first-line therapy in different cancer types but their clinical use is limited by poor solubility and oral bioavailability. Consequently, new nanoparticle systems are necessary to ameliorate formulations and reduce toxicity. In this review, some of the most important TKIs are reported, focusing on ongoing clinical studies, and the recent drug delivery systems for these molecules are investigated.

Nanomedicine of tyrosine kinase inhibitors

Recent progress in nanomedicine and targeted therapy brings new breeze into the field of therapeutic applications of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). These drugs are known for many side effects due to non-targeted mechanism of action that negatively impact quality of patients' lives or that are responsible for failure of the drugs in clinical trials. Some nanocarrier properties provide improvement of drug efficacy, reduce the incidence of adverse events, enhance drug bioavailability, helps to overcome the blood-brain barrier, increase drug stability or allow for specific delivery of TKIs to the diseased cells. Moreover, nanotechnology can bring new perspectives into combination therapy, which can be highly efficient in connection with TKIs. Lastly, nanotechnology in combination with TKIs can be utilized in the field of theranostics, i.e. for simultaneous therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. The review provides a comprehensive overview of advantages and future prospects of conjunction of nanotransporters with TKIs as a highly promising approach to anticancer therapy.

Nanodelivery Systems Targeting Epidermal Growth Factor Receptors for Glioma Management

A paradigm shift in treating the most aggressive and malignant form of glioma is continuously evolving; however, these strategies do not provide a better life and survival index. Currently, neurosurgical debulking, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are the treatment options available for glioma, but these are non-specific in action. Patients invariably develop resistance to these therapies, leading to recurrence and death. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs) are among the most common cell surface proteins in glioma and play a significant role in malignant progression; thus, these are currently being explored as therapeutic targets. RTKs belong to the family of cell surface receptors that are activated by ligands which in turn activates two major downstream signaling pathways via Rapidly Accelerating Sarcoma/mitogen activated protein kinase/extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (Ras/MAPK/ERK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/a serine/threonine protein kinase/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/AKT/mTOR). These pathways are critically involved in regulating cell proliferation, invasion, metabolism, autophagy, and apoptosis. Dysregulation in these pathways results in uncontrolled glioma cell proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and cancer progression. Thus, RTK pathways are considered a potential target in glioma management. This review summarizes the possible risk factors involved in the growth of glioblastoma (GBM). The role of RTKs inhibitors (TKIs) and the intracellular signaling pathways involved, small molecules under clinical trials, and the updates were discussed. We have also compiled information on the outcomes from the various endothelial growth factor receptor (EGFR)-TKIs-based nanoformulations from the preclinical and clinical points of view. Aided by an extensive literature search, we propose the challenges and potential opportunities for future research on EGFR-TKIs-based nanodelivery systems.

Carrier-Free Small-Molecule Drug Nanoassembly Elicits Chemoimmunotherapy via Co-inhibition of PD-L1/mTOR

The growth and progression of tumor are promoted by multiple cytokines, which are overactivated in the tumor microenvironment. Co-inhibiting the activities of these cytokines is expected to realize the enhanced therapeutic outcome of cancer. However, reasonable combinational strategies are still limited. Herein, a nanoassembly structure that was totally formed by the assembly of small-molecule inhibitors is constructed for the co-inhibition of mTOR and PD-L1. Together with the NIR dye IR783, Rapa and (+)-JQ1 assemble to form a stable nanoassembly structure with controllable particle size. The JQ1/Rapa-IR783 nanoassembly efficiently downregulates the PD-L1 level as well as the level of PKM2. The combination of Rapa and (+)-JQ1 enhances the apoptosis of cancer cells compared with that following treatment with Rapa or (+)-JQ1 alone. In vivo assays conducted to evaluate tumor growth inhibition mediated by the nanoassemblies revealed that the simultaneous delivery of Rapa and (+)-JQ1 not only inhibited the growth of primary tumors but also alleviated pulmonary metastasis by reinvigorating the immune system as the result of the downregulation of both mTOR and PD-L1. It demonstrates that the nanoassembly structure is a promising candidate for the codelivery of immunomodulator for enhanced cancer immunotherapy.

Enzyme-based autophagy in anti-neoplastic management: From molecular mechanisms to clinical therapeutics

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved self-cannibalization process commonly found in all eukaryotic cells. Through autophagy, long-lived or damaged organelles, superfluous proteins, and pathogens are sequestered and encapsulated into the double-membrane autophagosomes prior to fusion with lysosomes for ultimate degradation and recycling. Given that autophagy is deemed both protective and detrimental in malignancies, the clinical therapeutic utilization of autophagy modulators in cancer has attracted immense attentions over the past decades. Dependence of tumor cells on autophagy during amino acid insufficiency or deprivation has prompted us to explore the underlying autophagy regulatory mechanisms to inject amino acid degrading enzymes and enzyme-based strategies into therapeutic maneuvers of autophagy in cancer.