In vitro/in vivo evaluation of pH-sensitive Gambogenic acid loaded Zein nanoparticles with polydopamine coating

Assembly of foxtail millet prolamin/chitosan hydrochloride/carboxymethyl-beta-cyclodextrin in acetic acid aqueous solution for enhanced curcumin retention

The aim of this work is to investigate the assembly of foxtail millet prolamin (FP) with chitosan hydrochloride (CHC) and carboxymethyl-beta-cyclodextrin (CMCD) in acetic acid aqueous solutions. The proportion of acetic acid has a positive impact on the disintegration of FP. With the use of 91.0 % (v/v) acetic acid, FP forms smaller particles of approximately 45 nm (naked FP particles) and 220 nm (FP - CHC - CMCD hybrid particles). In the case of using 61.5 % (v/v) acetic acid, the microstructures of bare FP particles and 570 nm composite FP nanoparticles (NPs) are looser, about 485 nm. Acetic acid inhibits the noncovalent bonds, including the hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding and electrostatic attractions between FP and polysaccharides. Therefore, 3.8 % (v/v) acetic acid can nucleate FP to form more compact FP hybrid particles for delivering curcumin (Cur) with higher encapsulation efficiency, storage stability and release performance, and improve the antibacterial and anticancer activity of Cur.

Polydopamine Applications in Biomedicine and Environmental Science

This manuscript explores the multifaceted applications of polydopamine (PDA) across various scientific and industrial domains. It covers the chemical aspects of PDA and its potential in bone tissue engineering, implant enhancements, cancer treatment, and nanotechnology. The manuscript investigates PDA's roles in tissue engineering, cell culture technologies, surface modifications, drug delivery systems, and sensing techniques. Additionally, it highlights PDA's contributions to microfabrication, nanoengineering, and environmental applications. Through detailed testing and assessment, the study identifies limitations in PDA-related research, such as synthesis complexity, incomplete mechanistic understanding, and biocompatibility variability. It also proposes future research directions aimed at improving synthesis techniques, expanding biomedical applications, and enhancing sensing technologies to optimize PDA's efficacy and scalability.

Ultra-pH-sensitive nanoparticle of gambogenic acid for tumor targeting therapy via anti-vascular strategy plus immunotherapy

Although the combination of anti-vascular strategy plus immunotherapy has emerged as the optimal first-line treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma, lack of tumor targeting leads to low antitumor efficacy and serious side effect. Here, we report an ultra-pH-sensitive nanoparticle of gambogenic acid (GNA) encapsulated by poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(2-azepane ethyl methacrylate) (PEG-PAEMA) for tumor-targeting combined therapy of anti-vascular strategy plus immunotherapy. PEG-PAEMA-GNA nanoparticle was quite stable at pH 7.4 for 30 d. In contrast, it exerted size shrinkage, charge reversal and the release of GNA at pH 6.7 within 24 h. Moreover, PEG-PAEMA-GNA significantly enhanced the anti-vascular activity, membrane-disruptive capability and pro-apoptosis when pH changed from 7.4 to 6.7. Western blot analysis exhibits that PEG-PAEMA and its GNA nanoparticle facilitated the phosphorylation of STING protein. In vivo assays show that PEG-PAEMA-GNA not only displayed much higher tumor inhibition of 92 % than 37 % of free GNA, but also inhibited tumor vasculature, promoted the maturation of dendritic cells and recruited more cytotoxic t-lymphocytes for sufficient anti-vascular therapy and immunotherapy. All these results demonstrate that PEG-PAEMA-GNA displayed tumor-targeting combined treatment of anti-vascular therapy and immunotherapy. This study offers a simple and novel method for the combination of anti-vascular therapy and immunotherapy with high selectivity towards tumor.

Unveiling Gambogenic Acid as a Promising Antitumor Compound: A Review

Gambogenic acid is a derivative of gambogic acid, a polyprenylated xanthone isolated from Garcinia hanburyi. Compared with the more widely studied gambogic acid, gambogenic acid has demonstrated advantages such as a more potent antitumor effect and less systemic toxicity than gambogic acid according to early investigations. Therefore, the present review summarizes the effectiveness and mechanisms of gambogenic acid in different cancers and highlights the mechanisms of action. In addition, drug delivery systems to improve the bioavailability of gambogenic acid and its pharmacokinetic profile are included. Gambogenic acid has been applied to treat a wide range of cancers, such as lung, liver, colorectal, breast, gastric, bladder, and prostate cancers. Gambogenic acid exerts its antitumor effects as a novel class of enhancer of zeste homolog 2 inhibitors. It prevents cancer cell proliferation by inducing apoptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis and controlling the cell cycle as well as autophagy. Gambogenic acid also hinders tumor cell invasion and metastasis by downregulating metastasis-related proteins. Moreover, gambogenic acid increases the sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapy and has shown effects on multidrug resistance in malignancy. This review adds insights for the prevention and treatment of cancers using gambogenic acid.

Novel dual targeting cubosomes modified with angiopep-2 for co-delivery GNA and PLHSpT to brain glioma

3Glioblastoma multiforme is the most aggressive malignant brain tumor. However, the treatment of glioblastoma multiforme faces great challenges owing to difficult penetration of the blood-brain barrier. Therefore, more effective treatment strategies are desired quite urgently. In our study, a dual-targeting drug delivery system for co-loading with hydrophobic Gambogenic acid and hydrophilic PLHSpT was developed by cubosomes with angiopep-2 decorating. The Ang-cubs-(GNA + PLHSpT) was prepared by high-temperature emulsification-low-temperature solidification demonstrating excellent physical properties.Transmission electron microscopy revealed that Ang-cubs-(GNA + PLHSpT) was nearly spherical with a "core-shell" double-layer structure. Differential scanning calorimetry suggested that a new phase was formed. Small-angle X-ray scattering also verified that Ang-cubs-(GNA + PLHSpT) retains the Pn3m cubic. Moreover, laser confocal indicated that Ang-cubs-(GNA + PLHSpT) was capable of crossing BBB via binding to lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1, likely suggesting the potential tumor-specific targeting characteristic. Compared to free drug and cubs-(GNA + PLHSpT), Ang-cubs-(GNA + PLHSpT) was easily taken up by C6 cell and exhibited better anti-glioma effects in vitro. Importantly, GNA and PLHSpT co-loaded Ang-cubs could suppress tumor growth and significantly prolong survival in vivo. In conclusion, Ang-cubs-(GNA + PLHSpT) acts as a new dual-targeting drug delivery system for the treatment of GBM.

Caged Polyprenylated Xanthones in Garcinia hanburyi and the Biological Activities of Them

The previous phytochemical analyses of Garcinia hanburyi revealed that the main structural characteristic associated with its biological activity is the caged polyprenylated xanthones with a unique 4-oxatricyclo [4.3.1.03,7] dec-2-one scaffold, which contains a highly substituted tetrahydrofuran ring with three quaternary carbons. Based on the progress in research of the chemical constituents, pharmacological effects and modification methods of the caged polyprenylated xanthones, this paper presents a preliminary predictive analysis of their drug-like properties based on the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity (ADME/T) properties. It was found out that these compounds have very similar pharmacokinetic properties because they possess the same caged xanthone structure, the 9,10-double bond in a,b-unsaturated ketones are critical for the antitumor activity. The author believes that there is an urgent need to seek new breakthroughs in the study of these caged polyprenylated xanthones. Thus, the research on the route of administration, therapeutic effect, structural modification and development of such active ingredients is of great interest. It is hoped that this paper will provide ideas for researchers to develop and utilize the active ingredients derived from natural products.

Gambogenic acid induces cell death in human osteosarcoma through altering iron metabolism, disturbing the redox balance, and activating the P53 signaling pathway

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common primary bone malignancy in children and adolescents with extremely poor prognosis. Gambogenic acid (GNA), one of the major bioactive ingredients isolated from Gamboge, has been shown to possess a multipotent antitumor effect, its activity on OS remains unclear yet. In this study, we found that GNA could trigger multiple cell death modalities, including ferroptosis and apoptosis in human OS cells, reduce the cell viability, inhibit the proliferation and invasiveness. Furthermore, GNA provoked oxidative stress leading to GSH depletion-inducing ROS generation and lipid peroxidation, altered iron metabolism represented by the induction of labile iron, mitochondrial membrane potential decreased, mitochondrial morphological changed, decreased the cell viability. In addition, ferroptosis inhibitors (Fer-1) and apoptosis inhibitors (NAC) can partially reversed GNA' s effects on OS cells. Further investigation showed that GNA augmented the expression of P53, bax, caspase 3 and caspase 9 and decreased the expression of Bcl-2, SLC7A11 and glutathione peroxidase-4 (GPX4). In vivo, GNA was showed to delay tumor growth significantly in axenograft osteosarcoma mouse model. In conclusion, this study reveals that GNA simultaneously triggers ferroptosis and apoptosis in human OS cells by inducing oxidative stress via the P53/SLC7A11/GPX4 axis.

Smart anti-vascular nanoagent induces positive feedback loop for self-augmented tumor accumulation

How to achieve efficient drug accumulation in the tumor with low vascular density is a great challenge but the key to push the limit of anti-vascular therapeutic efficacy. Herein, we report a charge-reversible nanoparticles of gambogenic acid (CRNP-GNA) that would induce the positive feedback loop between increased tumor vascular permeability and improved drug accumulation. This positive feedback loop would remarkably improve tumor vascular permeability for efficient drug accumulation through few residue vessels. As compared to its charge-irreversible analogue in the latter injections, the accumulation in tumor and vascular permeability and retention indexes (VPRI) in CRNP-GNA group respectively boosted from nearly equal to 8.32 and 60 times, while its tumorous microvessel density decreased from nearly equal to only 7%. The self-augmented accumulation consequently amplified the antitumor efficacy via multiple pathways of anti-angiogenesis, vascular disruption and pro-apoptosis, where 5 out of 6 tumors in animal models were completely cured by CRNP-GNA. This work confirms that the underlying positive feedback loop for anti-vascular therapy could be induced by charge-reversible drug delivery nanosystem to achieve efficient and self-augmented drug accumulation even in the tumor with few vessels. It provides a novel strategy to conquer the dilemma between anti-vascular efficacy and drug accumulation.

ZIF-8 integrated with polydopamine coating as a novel nano-platform for skin-specific drug delivery

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are highly promising as a novel class of drug delivery carriers; however, there are few reports about their application in nanoparticle-based formulations for dermal administration. In this work, we developed a novel kind of nanoparticular system based on zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) and polydopamine (PDA) modification for improving the dermal delivery of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The structures and properties of the prepared nanoparticles were characterized using a variety of analytical methods. Their ex vivo delivery performance in the skin was investigated using Franz cells, and the underlying mechanisms were studied via confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) experiments which were employed to probe the penetration pathway and the interaction between nanoparticles and the skin. The results revealed that both 5-FU@ZIF-8 and ZIF-8@5-FU@PDA had an enhancement effect on the deposition of 5-FU in the skin, and the surface coating of PDA could further reduce drug permeation across the skin, especially in the case of impaired skin, in comparison with the drug solution. The CLSM study using rhodamine 6G as the fluorescent probe to mimic 5-FU indicated that ZIF-8 and ZIF-8@PDA could deliver their payloads into the skin via two pathways, i.e., intercellular and follicular ones, and the follicular route was shown to be particularly important for ZIF-8@PDA, in which the drug and carrier were co-delivered into the skin as an intact particle. This study provides evidence for using ZIF-8 and PDA modification for skin-specific drug delivery and offers an effective avenue to develop novel nanoplatforms for dermal application to treat skin diseases.

Zein-based nanoparticles: Preparation, characterization, and pharmaceutical application

Zein, as one of the natural and GRAS proteins in plant, is renewable, nontoxic, biocompatible and biodegradable. Over the past decade, many research efforts have been devoted to zein-based biomaterials for several industrial applications. Combining with research experiences in our research group, the preparation methods, characterizations and pharmaceutical applications of zein-based nanoparticles were summarized in this review. Zein NPs with different particle nanostructures have been prepared by chemical crosslinking, desolvating, dispersing and micromixing strategies. The pharmaceutical applications of zein NPs are mainly focus on the drug delivery. Zein NPs can improve the drug stability, increase the oral bioavailability, control the drug release and enhance the drug targeting, thereby improving the pharmaceutical effect effectively. More efforts are required to analyze the relationship among preparation methods, particle nanostructures and pharmaceutical properties in virtue of quality by design approach, and further promote the scale-up production and clinical application of zein NPs.

Advances and Prospects of Prolamine Corn Protein Zein as Promising Multifunctional Drug Delivery System for Cancer Treatment

Zein is a type of prolamine protein that is derived from corn, and it has been recognized by the US FDA as one of the safest biological materials available. Zein possesses valuable characteristics that have made it a popular choice for the preparation of drug carriers, which can be administered through various routes to improve the therapeutic effect of antitumor drugs. Additionally, zein contains free hydroxyl and amino groups that offer numerous modification sites, enabling it to be hybridized with other materials to create functionalized drug delivery systems. However, despite its potential, the clinical translation of drug-loaded zein-based carriers remains challenging due to insufficient basic research and relatively strong hydrophobicity. In this paper, we aim to systematically introduce the main interactions between loaded drugs and zein, administration routes, and the functionalization of zein-based antitumor drug delivery systems, in order to demonstrate its development potential and promote their further application. We also provide perspectives and future directions for this promising area of research.

Design and Development of Gold-Loaded and Boron-Attached Multicore Manganese Ferrite Nanoparticles as a Potential Agent in Biomedical Applications

Early diagnosis and effective treatment of cancer are significant issues that should be focused on since it is one of the most deadly diseases. Multifunctional nanomaterials can offer new cancer diagnoses and treatment possibilities. These nanomaterials with diverse functions, including targeting, imaging, and therapy, are being studied extensively in a way that minimize overcoming the limitations associated with traditional cancer diagnosis and treatment. Therefore, the goal of this study is to prepare multifunctional nanocomposites possessing the potential to be used simultaneously in imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and dual cancer therapy such as photothermal therapy (PTT) and boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). In this context, multi-core MnFe₂O₄ nanoparticles, which can be used as a potential MRI contrast agent and target the desired region in the body via a magnetic field, were successfully synthesized via the solvothermal method. Then, multi-core nanoparticles were coated with polydopamine (PDA) to reduce gold nanoparticles, bind boron on the surface, and ensure the biocompatibility of all materials. Finally, gold nanoparticles were reduced on the surface of PDA-coated MnFe₂O₄, and boric acid was attached to the hybrid materials for also possessing the ability to be used as a potential agent in PTT and BNCT applications in addition to being an MRI agent. According to the cell viability assay, treatment of the glioblastoma cell line (T98G) with MnFe₂O₄@PDA-Au-BA for 24 and 48 h did not cause any significant cell death, indicating good biocompatibility. All analysis results showed that the developed MnFe₂O₄@PDA-Au-BA multifunctional material could be a helpful candidate for biomedical applications such as MRI, PTT, and BNCT.

Zein Microparticles and Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems

Zein is a natural, biocompatible, and biodegradable polymer widely used in the pharmaceutical, biomedical, and packaging fields because of its low water vapor permeability, antibacterial activity, and hydrophobicity. It is a vegetal protein extracted from renewable resources (it is the major storage protein from corn). There has been growing attention to producing zein-based drug delivery systems in the recent years. Being a hydrophobic biopolymer, it is used in the controlled and targeted delivery of active principles. This review examines the present-day landscape of zein-based microparticles and nanoparticles, focusing on the different techniques used to obtain particles, the optimization of process parameters, advantages, disadvantages, and final applications.

Aspirin Repurposing in Folate-Decorated Nanoparticles: Another Way to Target Breast Cancer

Breast cancer affects more than 1 million women per year worldwide. Through this study, we developed a nanoparticle-based drug delivery system to target breast cancer cells. Aspirin has been found to inhibit thromboembolic diseases with its tumor-preventing activity. As a consequence, it relieves disease symptoms and severity. Here, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MNPs) have been used to deliver aspirin to the tumor location. MNP-based aspirin in folic acid (F)-conjugated polydopamine (MNP-Asp-PD-PG-F) vehicles are prepared for targeted breast cancer therapy. The vehicle hinges on MNP altered with polymer polyethylene glycol (PG), polydopamine (PD), and F. The delivery vehicle was studied for in vitro drug release, cytotoxicity, and breast cancer cell proliferation. F-conjugated drug delivery vehicles let MNPs achieve an elevated targeting efficacy, ideal for cancer therapy. It was also observed that compared to free aspirin, our drug delivery system (MNP-Asp-PD-PG-F) has a higher cytotoxic and antiproliferative effect on breast cancer cells. The drug delivery system can be proposed as a targeted breast cancer therapy that could be further focused on other targeted cancer therapies. Delivering aspirin by the PD-PG-F system on the tumor sites promises a therapeutic potential for breast cancer treatment.

Nuclear Targeted Peptide Combined With Gambogic Acid for Synergistic Treatment of Breast Cancer

As a natural compound, gambogic acid (GA) emerged a shining multi-target antitumor activity in a variety of tumors. Whereas its poor solubility and non-specific effect to tumor blocked the clinical application of this drug. Herein, we reported a simple and effective strategy to construct liposome modified with nuclear targeted peptide CB5005N (VQRKRQKLMPC) via polyethylene glycol (PEG) linker to decrease the inherent limitations of GA and promote its anti-tumor activity. In this study, liposomes were prepared by thin film hydration method. The characterization of formulations contained particle size, Zeta potential, morphology and encapsulation efficiency. Further, in vitro cytotoxicity and uptake tests were investigated by 4T1 and MDA-MB-231 cells, and nuclear targeting capability was performed on MDA-MB-231 cells. In addition, the in vivo antitumor effect and biological distribution of formulations were tested in BALB/c female mice. The GA-loaded liposome modified by CB5005N showed small size, good uniformity, better targeting, higher anti-tumor efficiency, better tumor inhibition rate and lower toxicity to normal tissues than other groups. In vitro and in vivo research proved that CB5005N-GA-liposome exhibited excellent anti-tumor activity and significantly reduced toxicities. As a result, CB5005N-GA-liposome nano drug delivery system enhanced the tumor targeting and antitumor effects of GA, which provided a basis for its clinical application.

Preparation, Characterization, and In Vitro/In Vivo Evaluation of 3-O-β-D-Galactosylated Resveratrol-Loaded Polydopamine Nanoparticles

3-O-β-D-galactosylated resveratrol (Gal-Res) was synthesized from resveratrol (Res) and 3-O-β-D-galactose (Gal) in our previous study. In order to improve the pH sensitivity and bioavailability of Gal-Res, Gal-Res nanoparticles (Gal-Res NPs) were prepared using polydopamine (PDA) as a drug carrier. The drug loading (DL %) and entrapment efficiency (EE %) of Gal-Res NPs were 46.80% and 88.06%. The average particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and Zeta potential of Gal-Res NPs were 179.38 ± 2.83 nm, 0.129 ± 0.013, and - 28.05 ± 0.36 mV, respectively. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) showed that Gal-Res NPs had uniform spherical morphology. Compared with the fast release of raw Gal-Res, the in vitro release of Gal-Res NPs was slow and pH-sensitive. The results of the blood vessel irritation and hemolysis test demonstrated that Gal-Res NPs had good hemocompatibility. The pharmacokinetics study in rats showed that area under the curve of plasma drug concentration time (AUC_0→600) and half-life (t_1/2) of Gal-Res NPs were enhanced 1.82-fold and 2.19-fold higher than those of raw Gal-Res. The in vivo biodistribution results showed that Gal-Res NPs were more distributed in liver tissue than Gal-Res. Gal-Res NPs with high bioavailability and liver accumulation were hopeful drug delivery systems (DDS) to treat liver diseases.