Transdermal delivery of duloxetine-sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin complex for effective management of depression

Smart Bioelectronics for Real-Time Diagnosis and Therapy of Body Organ Functions

Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) associated with cardiovascular, neurological, and gastrointestinal disorders remain a leading cause of global mortality, sounding the alarm for the urgent need for better diagnostic and therapeutic solutions. Wearable and implantable biointegrated electronics offer a groundbreaking solution, combining real-time, high-resolution monitoring with innovative treatment capabilities tailored to specific organ functions. In this comprehensive review, we focus on the diseases affecting the brain, heart, gastrointestinal organs, bladder, and adrenal gland, along with their associated physiological parameters. Additionally, we provide an overview of the characteristics of these parameters and explore the potential of bioelectronic devices for in situ sensing and therapeutic applications and highlight the recent advancements in their deployment across specific organs. Finally, we analyze the current challenges and prospects of implementing closed-loop feedback control systems in integrated sensor-therapy applications. By emphasizing organ-specific applications and advocating for closed-loop systems, this review highlights the potential of future bioelectronics to address physiological needs and serves as a guide for researchers navigating the interdisciplinary fields of diagnostics, therapeutics, and personalized medicine.

Cyclodextrin-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Depression: Improving Antidepressant Bioavailability and Targeted Central Nervous System Delivery

Cyclodextrin (CD)-based drug delivery systems have emerged as a promising strategy to overcome limitations commonly encountered in antidepressant therapy, including low bioavailability, poor solubility, and suboptimal penetration of the blood-brain barrier. This review synthesizes current evidence demonstrating that complexing various classes of antidepressants-such as tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and atypical antidepressants-with β-CD or its derivatives significantly enhances drug solubility and stability. In addition, encapsulation with CDs can diminish systemic toxicity and improve pharmacokinetics, thereby helping to optimize dosage regimens and reduce adverse effects. Analysis of published in vitro and in vivo studies indicates that CD formulations not only boost therapeutic efficacy but also enable sustained or targeted release, which is critical for drugs requiring precise plasma and tissue concentrations. When compared to other carriers (e.g., liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers), CD-based systems often stand out for their ease of formulation, biocompatibility, and cost-effectiveness, although limited drug-loading capacity can be a drawback. We recommend expanding in vivo trials to substantiate the clinical benefits of CD-antidepressant complexes, particularly for treatment-resistant cases or specific subpopulations (e.g., elderly and pediatric patients). Additional investigations should also explore hybrid systems-combining CDs with advanced nano- or macroparticles-to amplify their advantages and address any limitations. Ultimately, integrating CDs into antidepressant regimens holds substantial potential to refine therapy outcomes, reduce adverse events, and pave the way for more personalized, effective interventions for depression.

An Overview of Film-Forming Emulsions for Dermal and Transdermal Drug Delivery

Drug delivery through the skin is a widely used therapeutic method for the treatment of local dermatologic conditions. Dermal and transdermal methods of drug delivery offer numerous advantages, but some of the most important aspects of drug absorption through the skin need to be considered. Film-forming systems (FFS) represent a new mode of sustained drug delivery that can be used to replace traditional topical formulations such as creams, ointments, pastes, or patches. They are available in various forms, including solutions, gels, and emulsions, and can be categorised as film-forming gels and film-forming emulsions. Film-forming emulsions (FFE) are designed as oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions that form a film with oil droplets encapsulated in a dry polymer matrix, thus maintaining their dispersed nature. They offer several advantages, including improved solubility, bioavailability and chemical stability of lipophilic drugs. In addition, they could improve the penetration and diffusion of drugs through the skin and enhance their absorption at the target site due to the nature of the components used in the formulation. The aim of this review is to provide an up-to-date compilation of the technologies used in film-forming emulsions to support their development and availability on the market as well as the development of new pharmaceutical forms.

Bionic nanopore recognition receptors for single-molecule enantioselectivity studies of chiral drugs

BACKGROUND

Enantiodiscrimination of chiral drugs is critical for understanding physiological phenomena and ensuring medical safety. Although enantiomers of these drugs share identical physicochemical properties, they exhibit significant differences in pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, and toxicological properties due to the differences in their three-dimensional shapes. Therefore, the development of effective methods for chiral recognition is of great significance and has been a hot topic in chemo/biological studies.

RESULTS

In this study, we designed a recognition receptor comprising a α-hemolysin (α-HL) nanopore and sulfobutyl ether-β-cyclodextrin (SBEβCD) for identifying the enantiomers of the antidepressant duloxetine at the single-molecule level. Chiral molecules were discriminated based on the different current blockages within the recognition receptor. The results indicated a strong interaction between R-duloxetine and the recognition receptor. By combining the experimental data and molecular docking results, we explored the recognition mechanism of the designed nanopore recognition receptor for chiral drug molecules. It was found that hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions play key roles in chiral recognition. Additionally, by comparing the binding kinetics of enantiomers to cyclodextrins in confined nanospace and bulk solution, we found that enantiomeric identification was better facilitated in the confined nanospace. Finally, the enantiomeric excess (ee) of the enantiomeric duloxetine mixture was measured using this recognized receptor.

SIGNIFICANCE

This strategy has the advantages of low cost, high sensitivity, and no need for additional derivative modifications, providing a new perspective on the development of chiral recognition sensors with excellent enantioselectivity in drug design, pharmaceuticals, and biological applications.

Mechanical strength affecting the penetration in microneedles and PLGA nanoparticle-assisted drug delivery: Importance of preparation and formulation

Microneedles (MNs) prepared from polymeric materials are painless and minimally invasive, safe and efficient, but they hindered by low mechanical strength and single diverse drug release pattern. Due to the distinctive mechanical strength and dimensions of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs), the integration of nano-technology with microneedles can effectively improve penetration and delivery efficiency through the stratum corneum. We herein designed a simple paroxetine (PAX)-loaded PLGA nanoparticles-integrated dissolving microneedles system (PAX-NPs-DMNs), aiming to improve the bioavailability of PAX through the synergistic permeation-enhancing effect of dissolving microneedles (DMNs) and NPs. PAX-NPs-DMNs had a complete tips molding rate (Neff) of (94.06 ± 2.16) %, a 15×15 quadrangular-conical microneedle array and an overall fracture force of 301.10 N, which were improved nearly 0.50 times compared with the blank microneedles (HA-DMNs) and PAX microneedles (PAX-DMNs). PAX-NPs-DMNs could extend the release duration of PAX from 1 h to 24 h and the cumulative permeability per unit area (Qn) was 47.66 times and 7.37 times higher than the PAX and the PAX-DMNs groups. PAX-NPs-DMNs could be rapidly dissolved within 10 min without hindering skin healing or causing adverse reactions. This study confirmed that PAX-NPs-DMNs can effectively improve the bioavailability of PAX and the mechanical strength of DMNs, which can easily penetrate the skin to provide sustained and painless delivery without causing adverse effects, thus offering a more convenient and effective method for central nervous diseases.

Repaglinide-Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in Chitosan Patches for Transdermal Application: Box-Behnken Design, Characterization, and In Vivo Evaluation

Background

Repaglinide (REP) is an antidiabetic drug with limited oral bioavailability attributable to its low solubility and considerable first-pass hepatic breakdown. This study aimed to develop a biodegradable chitosan-based system loaded with REP-solid lipid nanoparticles (REP-SLNs) for controlled release and bioavailability enhancement via transdermal delivery.

Methods

REP-SLNs were fabricated by ultrasonic hot-melt emulsification. A Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to explore and optimize the impacts of processing variables (lipid content, surfactant concentration, and sonication amplitude) on particle size (PS), and entrapment efficiency (EE). The optimized REP-SLN formulation was then incorporated within a chitosan solution to develop a transdermal delivery system (REP-SLN-TDDS) and evaluated for physicochemical properties, drug release, and ex vivo permeation profiles. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics were assessed using experimental rats.

Results

The optimized REP-SLNs had a PS of 249±9.8 nm and EE of 78%±2.3%. The developed REP-SLN-TDDS demonstrated acceptable characteristics without significant aggregation of REP-SLNs throughout the casting and drying processes. The REP-SLN-TDDS exhibited a biphasic release pattern, where around 36% of the drug load was released during the first 2 h, then the drug release was sustained at around 80% at 24 h. The computed flux across rat skin for the REP-SLN-TDDS was 2.481±0.22 μg/cm2/h in comparison to 0.696±0.07 μg/cm2/h for the unprocessed REP, with an enhancement ratio of 3.56. The REP-SLN-TDDS was capable of sustaining greater REP plasma levels over a 24 h period (p<0.05). The REP-SLN-TDDS also reduced blood glucose levels compared to unprocessed REP and commercial tablets (p<0.05) in experimental rats.

Conclusion

Our REP-SLN-TDDS can be considered an efficient therapeutic option for REP administration.

Change in the Kinetic Regime of Aggregation of Yeast Alcohol Dehydrogenase in the Presence of 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin

Chemical chaperones are low-molecular-weight compounds that suppress protein aggregation. They can influence different stages of the aggregation process-the stage of protein denaturation, the nucleation stage and the stage of aggregate growth-and this may lead to a change in the aggregation kinetic regime. Here, the possibility of changing the kinetic regime in the presence of a chemical chaperone 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (2-HP-β-CD) was investigated for a test system based on the thermally induced aggregation of yeast alcohol dehydrogenase (yADH) at 56 °C. According to differential scanning calorimetry data, 2-HP-β-CD did not affect the stage of the protein molecule unfolding. Dynamic light scattering data indicated changes in the aggregation kinetics of yADH during the nucleation and aggregate growth stages in the presence of the chaperone. The analysis of kinetic curves showed that the order of aggregation with respect to protein (nc), calculated for the stage of aggregate growth, changed from nc = 1 to nc = 2 with the addition of 100 mM 2-HP-β-CD. The mechanism of 2-HP-β-CD action on the yADH thermal aggregation leading to a change in its kinetic regime of aggregation is discussed.

Development and Assessment of Acyclovir Gel Plaster Containing Sponge Spicules

Acyclovir is an acyclic purine nucleoside analog that is highly effective in inhibiting the herpes simplex virus. However, topical acyclovir has poor efficacy because of its low skin permeability. This study aimed to develop an acyclovir gel plaster containing sponge spicules (AGP-SS) to achieve synergistic improvements in skin absorption and deposition of acyclovir. The process of preparing the gel plaster was optimized by orthogonal experiments, while the composition of the formulation was optimized using the Plackett-Burman and Box-Behnken experimental designs. The selected formula was tested for physical properties, in vitro release, stability, ex vivo permeation, skin irritation, and pharmacokinetics. The optimized formulation exhibited good physical characteristics. In vitro release and ex vivo permeation studies showed that acyclovir release from AGP-SS was dominated by diffusion with significantly higher skin permeation (20.00 ± 1.07 μg/cm2) than that of the controls (p < 0.05). Dermatopharmacokinetic analyses revealed that the maximum concentration (78.74 ± 11.12 μg/g), area under the curve (1091.81 ± 29.05 μg/g/h) and relative bioavailability (197.12) of AGP-SS were higher than those of the controls. Therefore, gel plaster containing sponge spicules show potential for development as transdermal delivery systems to achieve higher skin absorption and deposition of acyclovir, especially in deep skin layers.

Preclinical Investigation of Transdermal Route for Enhanced Bio-performance of Duloxetine HCl

The aim of the study was to develop and optimise drug-in-adhesive (DIA) transdermal patch of duloxetine HCl for enhanced drug delivery. DIA patch so developed reduced the dose and dosing frequency by enhancing bio-performance of the drug. A transdermal DIA patch having Duro-Tak 87-2287 as DIA polymer and Transcutol P as permeation enhancer loaded with 40% drug previously complexed with MeβCD duly characterised (FTIR, DSC, and SEM) was developed for in vivo study. Pharmacokinetic parameters of developed formulation were assessed and compared with oral route of administration. Among various permeation enhancers (PEs), Transcutol P exhibited most enhanced permeation (ER ≈ 1.99) in terms of flux and Q24 compared to control group having. Mean of maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and area under time-concentration curve (AUC0-72) in Wistar rats (n = 6) for transdermal patch (10 mg/kg) was found to be 70.31 ± 11.2 ng/ml and 2997.29 ± 387.4 ng/ml*h, respectively, and were considerably higher than oral dose of DLX (20 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg). Albeit, T1/2 was higher in case of transdermal delivery, but this was due to sustained behaviour of delivery system. These findings highlight the significance of both inclusion complexation and transdermal delivery of DLX using DIA patch for efficient drug absorption.

Preparation and characterization of an iron-β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex: factors influencing the host-guest interaction

Cyclodextrins have received attention recently due to their superior binding with countless hydrophobic molecules. The host-guest interaction between the cyclodextrin cavity and the hydrophobic component not only facilitates the formation of a strong inclusion complex (IC), but also improves its stability against thermal degradation. The functionality of cyclodextrins for the delivery of hydrophilic components is less explored in comparison. This study discusses the application of β-cyclodextrin (βCD) for the delivery of highly bioavailable and hydrophilic iron, ferric sodium EDTA, which exhibits great functionality in the presence of polyphenols and phytates with potential application in food fortification. The formation of IC was dependent on the cyclodextrin amount and alcoholic co-solvent and was influenced by the stirring duration. For ferric sodium EDTA, the highest inclusion rate (IR) of ∼77% was obtained after 72 hours of mixing in 25.4% (v/v) alcohol at a ratio of iron : βCD of 1 : 6. A higher IR (∼96%) was obtained after 6 hours of stirring with less soluble ferrous ammonium phosphate in comparison. The melting temperature (T_m) of the ferrous ammonium phosphate complex increased from ∼172 to ∼294 °C. The high IR and enhanced thermal resistance of the complex make βCDs potential carriers for ferrous ammonium phosphate delivery and fortification of foods processed at high temperatures.

Cyclodextrin Derivative Enhances the Ophthalmic Delivery of Poorly Soluble Azithromycin

Azithromycin (AZM), a macrolide antibiotic used for the treatment of chlamydial conjunctivitis, is less effective for the treatment of this disease due to its poor bioavailability (38%). Various alternatives have been developed for improving the physicochemical properties (i.e., solubility) of the AZM without much success. To overcome the problems associated with AZM, an inclusion complex employing a modified cyclodextrin, i.e., sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin (SBE-β-CD), was prepared and characterized by phase solubility studies and PXRD techniques. The results portrayed the formation of an inclusion complex of AZM with SBE-β-CD in 1:2 molar stoichiometric ratios. This inclusion complex was later incorporated into a polymer matrix to prepare an in situ gel. Various combinations of Carbopol 934P and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC K4M) polymers were used and evaluated by rheological and in vitro drug release studies. The optimized formulation (F4) containing Carbopol 934P (0.2% w/v) and HPMC K4M (0.2% w/v) was evaluated for clarity, pH, gelling capacity, drug content, rheological properties, in vitro drug release pattern, ocular irritation test, and antimicrobial efficacy. Finally, owing to the improved antimicrobial efficacy and increased residence time, the AZM:SBE-β-CD in situ gel was found to be a promising formulation for the efficient treatment of bacterial ocular disease.

The Potential Antidepressant Action of Duloxetine Co-Administered with the TAAR1 Receptor Agonist SEP-363856 in Mice

Here, we explored the possible interaction between duloxetine and SEP-363856 (SEP-856) in depression-related reactions. The results showed that oral administration of duloxetine showed powerful antidepressant-like effects in both the forced swimming test (FST) and the suspension tail test (TST). SEP-856 orally administered alone also exerted an antidepressant-like effect in FST and TST, especially at doses of 0.3, 1, and 10 mg/kg. In addition, duloxetine (15 mg/kg) and SEP-856 (15 mg/kg) both showed antidepressant-like effects in the sucrose preference test (SPT). Most importantly, in the above experiments, compared with duloxetine alone, the simultaneous use of duloxetine and SEP-856 caused a more significant antidepressant-like effect. It is worth noting that doses of drug combination in FST and TST did not change the motor activities of mice in the open-field test (OFT). Thus, duloxetine and SEP-856 seem to play a synergistic role in regulating depression-related behaviors and might be beneficial for refractory depression.

Cyclodextrin Dispersion of Mebendazole and Flubendazole Improves In Vitro Antiproliferative Activity

Mebendazole and flubendazole are antihelmintic drugs that have re-entered the research spotlight due to their exhibited anticancer effects, thus making them strong candidates as repurposed drugs. However, these benzimidazole derivatives exhibit poor solubility in water and various organic solvents, which limits their bioavailability. With the aim of obtaining an improved drug solubility and increased biological effect, mebendazole and flubendazole were complexed with 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPBCD). The binary 1:1 conjugates were physicochemically evaluated by X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis, and FTIR spectroscopy, revealing the formation of physical mixtures. The increased aqueous solubility of the binary 1:1 conjugates vs. pure benzimidazole compounds was demonstrated by performing dissolution tests. The in vitro antiproliferative activity of mebendazole and flubendazole, as well as their combination with HPBCD, was tested on two cancer cell lines, human melanoma—A375 and pulmonary adenocarcinoma—A549 by the MTT assay. The cytotoxic activity manifested in a dose-dependent manner while the presence of HPBCD increased the antiproliferative activity against the targeted cells. Treatment of A375 and A549 cell lines with the binary conjugates induced a significant inhibition of mitochondrial respiration, as revealed by high-resolution respirometry studies. Molecular docking analysis showed that one of the mechanisms related to MEB and FLU cytotoxic activity may be due to the inhibition of MEK/ERK proteins.

Mental depression: Relation to different disease status, newer treatments and its association with COVID-19 pandemic (Review)

The present study aimed to review major depression, including its types, epidemiology, association with different diseases status and treatments, as well as its correlation with the current COVID-19 pandemic. Mental depression is a common disorder that affects most individuals at one time or another. During depression, there are changes in mood and behavior, accompanied by feelings of defeat, hopelessness, or even suicidal thoughts. Depression has a direct or indirect relation with a number of other diseases including Alzheimer's disease, stroke, epilepsy, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer. In addition, antidepressant drugs have several side effects including sedation, increased weight, indigestion, sexual dysfunction, or a decrease in blood pressure. Stopping medication may cause a relapse of the symptoms of depression and pose a risk of attempted suicide. The pandemic of COVID-19 has affected the mental health of individuals, including patients, individuals contacting patients and medical staff with a number of mental disorders that may adversely affect the immune ability of their bodies. Some of the drugs currently included in the protocols for treating COVID-19 may negatively affect the mental health of patients. Evidence accumulated over the years indicates that serotonin (5HT) deficiencies and norepinephrine (NE) in the brain can lead to mental depression. Drugs that increase levels of NE and 5HT are commonly used in the treatment of depression. The common reason for mood disorders, including mania and bipolar disease are not clearly understood. It is assumed that hyperactivity in specific parts of the brain and excessive activity of neurotransmitters may be involved. Early diagnosis and developing new treatment strategies are essential for the prevention of the severe consequences of depression. In addition, extensive research should be directed towards the investigation of the mental health disturbances occurring during and/or after COVID-19 infection. This may lead to the incorporation of a suitable antidepressant into the current treatment protocols.

Thermodynamic Studies of Interactions between Sertraline Hydrochloride and Randomly Methylated β-Cyclodextrin Molecules Supported by Circular Dichroism Spectroscopy and Molecular Docking Results

The interaction between sertraline hydrochloride (SRT) and randomly methylated β-cyclodextrin (RMβCD) molecules have been investigated at 298.15 K under atmospheric pressure. The method used-Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) enabled to determine values of the thermodynamic functions like the enthalpy (ΔH), the entropy (ΔS) and the Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of binding for the examined system. Moreover, the stoichiometry coefficient of binding (n) and binding/association constant (K) value have been calculated from the experimental results. The obtained outcome was compared with the data from the literature for other non-ionic βCD derivatives interacting with SRT and the enthalpy-entropy compensation were observed and interpreted. Furthermore, the connection of RMβCD with SRT was characterized by circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD) and complexes of βCD derivatives with SRT were characterized through the computational studies with the use of molecular docking (MD).

Biocompatible ionic liquids assisted transdermal co-delivery of antigenic protein and adjuvant for cancer immunotherapy

Human skin contains numerous antigen-presenting cells that are a potential target for several immune-based therapies, including vaccination and cancer immunotherapy. However, the outermost layer of the skin-the stratum corneum-acts as a major physical barrier against the permeation of antigens that have a molecular weight > 500 Da. In this study, an ionic liquid-assisted delivery system (ILDS) was developed, which enabled the successful transdermal delivery of an antigenic protein, ovalbumin (OVA), with a toll-like receptor agonist, imiquimod, as an adjuvant, to stimulate a specific immune response. Both the ionic liquids and ILDS were completely biocompatible for topical or transdermal application for therapeutic purposes. The skin permeation of the antigenic protein and adjuvant was found to be significantly enhanced because of the incorporation of a surface-active ionic liquid in the ILDS. An in vivo immunization study showed that there was a high level of OVA-specific IgG antibody production because of the enhanced permeation of the antigen and adjuvant across and into the skin. In a preclusive anticancer study, vaccination through ILDS showed stronger tumor-growth inhibition compared to control group. These results indicated that the ILDS could be a promising strategy for transdermal immunization as future therapeutics.