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de Carvalho ACW, Paiva NF, Demonari IK, Duarte MPF, do Couto RO, de Freitas O, Vicentini FTMDC. The Potential of Films as Transmucosal Drug Delivery Systems. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2583. [PMID: 38004562 PMCID: PMC10675688 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15112583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Pharmaceutical films are polymeric formulations used as a delivery platform for administration of small and macromolecular drugs for local or systemic action. They can be produced by using synthetic, semi-synthetic, or natural polymers through solvent casting, electrospinning, hot-melt extrusion, and 3D printing methods, and depending on the components and the manufacturing methods used, the films allow the modulation of drug release. Moreover, they have advantages that have drawn interest in the development and evaluation of film application on the buccal, nasal, vaginal, and ocular mucosa. This review aims to provide an overview of and critically discuss the use of films as transmucosal drug delivery systems. For this, aspects such as the composition of these formulations, the theories of mucoadhesion, and the methods of production were deeply considered, and an analysis of the main transmucosal pathways for which there are examples of developed films was conducted. All of this allowed us to point out the most relevant characteristics and opportunities that deserve to be taken into account in the use of films as transmucosal drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Clara Wada de Carvalho
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Brazil. Av. Café, Ribeirão Preto 14048-900, SP, Brazil; (A.C.W.d.C.)
| | - Natália Floriano Paiva
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Brazil. Av. Café, Ribeirão Preto 14048-900, SP, Brazil; (A.C.W.d.C.)
| | - Isabella Kriunas Demonari
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Brazil. Av. Café, Ribeirão Preto 14048-900, SP, Brazil; (A.C.W.d.C.)
| | - Maíra Peres Ferreira Duarte
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Brazil. Av. Café, Ribeirão Preto 14048-900, SP, Brazil; (A.C.W.d.C.)
| | - Renê Oliveira do Couto
- Campus Centro-Oeste Dona Lindu (CCO), Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei (UFSJ), Divinópolis 35501-296, MG, Brazil
| | - Osvaldo de Freitas
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Brazil. Av. Café, Ribeirão Preto 14048-900, SP, Brazil; (A.C.W.d.C.)
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Mu R, Bu N, Yuan Y, Pang J, Ma C, Wang L. Development of chitosan/konjac glucomannan/tragacanth gum tri-layer food packaging films incorporated with tannic acid and ε-polylysine based on mussel-inspired strategy. Int J Biol Macromol 2023:125100. [PMID: 37236557 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.125100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Constructing biodegradable food packaging with good mechanics, gas barrier and antibacterial properties to maintain food quality is still challenge. In this work, mussel-inspired bio-interface emerged as a tool for constructing functional multilayer films. Konjac glucomannan (KGM) and tragacanth gum (TG) with physical entangled network are introduced in the core layer. Cationic polypeptide ε-polylysine (ε-PLL) and chitosan (CS) producing cationic-π interaction with adjacent aromatic residues in tannic acid (TA) are introduced in the two-sided outer layer. The triple-layer film mimics the mussel adhesive bio-interface, where cationic residues in outer layers interact with negatively charged TG in the core layer. Furthermore, a series of physical tests showed excellent performance of triple-layer film with great mechanical properties (tensile strength (TS): 21.4 MPa, elongation at break (EAB): 7.9 %), UV-shielding (almost 0 % UV transmittance), thermal stability, water, and oxygen barrier (oxygen permeability (OP): 1.14 × 10-3 g/m s Pa and water vapor permeability (WVP): 2.15 g mm/m2 day kPa). In addition, the triple-layer film demonstrated advanced degradability, antimicrobial functions, and presented good moisture-proof performance for crackers, which can be potentially applied as dry food packaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruojun Mu
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Nitong Bu
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Yi Yuan
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Jie Pang
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Chen Ma
- Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Lin Wang
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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Straker MA, Levy JA, Stine JM, Borbash V, Beardslee LA, Ghodssi R. Freestanding region-responsive bilayer for functional packaging of ingestible devices. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2023; 9:61. [PMID: 37206701 PMCID: PMC10188515 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-023-00536-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Ingestible capsules have the potential to become an attractive alternative to traditional means of treating and detecting gastrointestinal (GI) disease. As device complexity increases, so too does the demand for more effective capsule packaging technologies to elegantly target specific GI locations. While pH-responsive coatings have been traditionally used for the passive targeting of specific GI regions, their application is limited due to the geometric restrictions imposed by standard coating methods. Dip, pan, and spray coating methods only enable the protection of microscale unsupported openings against the harsh GI environment. However, some emerging technologies have millimeter-scale components for performing functions such as sensing and drug delivery. To this end, we present the freestanding region-responsive bilayer (FRRB), a packaging technology for ingestible capsules that can be readily applied for various functional ingestible capsule components. The bilayer is composed of rigid polyethylene glycol (PEG) under a flexible pH-responsive Eudragit® FL 30 D 55, which protects the contents of the capsule until it arrives in the targeted intestinal environment. The FRRB can be fabricated in a multitude of shapes that facilitate various functional packaging mechanisms, some of which are demonstrated here. In this paper, we characterize and validate the use of this technology in a simulated intestinal environment, confirming that the FRRB can be tuned for small intestinal release. We also show a case example where the FRRB is used to protect and expose a thermomechanical actuator for targeted drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A. Straker
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740 USA
- Robert E. Fischell Institute for Biomedical Devices, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20850 USA
| | - Joshua A. Levy
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740 USA
- Robert E. Fischell Institute for Biomedical Devices, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20850 USA
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740 USA
| | - Justin M. Stine
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740 USA
- Robert E. Fischell Institute for Biomedical Devices, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20850 USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
| | - Vivian Borbash
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
| | - Luke A. Beardslee
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740 USA
| | - Reza Ghodssi
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740 USA
- Robert E. Fischell Institute for Biomedical Devices, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20850 USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
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Yusefi M, Shameli K, Lee-Kiun MS, Teow SY, Moeini H, Ali RR, Kia P, Jie CJ, Abdullah NH. Chitosan coated magnetic cellulose nanowhisker as a drug delivery system for potential colorectal cancer treatment. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 233:123388. [PMID: 36706873 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Polysaccharide-based magnetic nanocomposites can eminently illuminate several attractive features as anticancer drug carriers. In this study, rice straw-based cellulose nanowhisker (CNW) was used as solid support for Fe3O4 nanofillers to synthesize magnetic CNW. Then, cross-linked chitosan-coated magnetic CNW for 5-fluorouracil carrier abbreviated as CH/MCNW/5FU. Fourier-transform infrared, X-Ray diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis indicated successful fabrication and multifunctional properties of the CH/MCNW/5FU nanocomposites. In addition, CH/MCNW/5FU nanocomposites showed hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential value of 181.31 ± 3.46 nm and +23 ± 1.8 mV, respectively. Based on images of transmission electron microscopy, magnetic CNW as reinforcement was coated with chitosan to obtain almost spherical CH/MCNW/5FU nanocomposites with an average diameter of 37.16 ± 3.08. The nanocomposites indicated desired saturation magnetization and thermal stability, high drug encapsulation efficiency, and pH-dependent swelling and drug release performance. CH/MCNW/5FU nanocomposites showed potent killing effects against colorectal cancer cells in both 2D monolayer and 3D spheroid models. These findings suggest CH/MCNW as a potential carrier for anticancer drugs with high tumour-penetrating capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Yusefi
- Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kamyar Shameli
- Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Institute of Virology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany.
| | - Michiele Soon Lee-Kiun
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Sin-Yeang Teow
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, 88 Daxue Road, Quhai, Wenzhou 325060, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Hassan Moeini
- Institute of Virology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Roshafima Rasit Ali
- Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Pooneh Kia
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chia Jing Jie
- Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nurul Hidayah Abdullah
- Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Mohamad SA, Badwi AM, Elrehany M, Ali S, Helmy AM. Cholecalciferol-load films for the treatment of nasal burns caused by cauterization of the hypertrophied inferior turbinate: formulation, in vivo study, and clinical assessment. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2023; 13:1102-1115. [PMID: 36509965 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01275-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Nasal turbinate hypertrophy is among the most common nasal obstruction disorders, affecting the patient's quality of life significantly. Endoscopic submucosal diathermy is a prevalent cauterization procedure for treating turbinate hypertrophy. Regrettably, the nasal burn associated with diathermy typically heals slowly causing facial pain and nasal bleeding and possibly resulting in synechiae formation. In the current study, we have developed, for the first time, a polymeric film loaded with cholecalciferol for local treatment of nasal burns. The casting method was used to prepare films of different compositions of polymers such as chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), Carbopol 971p (CP971p), and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as well as a plasticizer. Several characterizations were performed for the cholecalciferol-loaded films (e.g. weight, thickness, content uniformity, surface pH, folding endurance, disintegration time, and in vitro release) to select the optimal formulation. The optimal formulation (F4) displayed compatibility between the used polymers and the drug. In vivo animal study was carried out to assess the healing efficacy of the formulated cholecalciferol-loaded film. The rabbits treated with the cholecalciferol-loaded film demonstrated significantly higher mRNA expression of the growth factor TGF-β and significantly lower mRNA expression of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α and IL-1β compared to the plain film treated group and the untreated control group. A randomized, single-blinded, parallel, controlled clinical trial was conducted on 20 patients scheduled to undergo endoscopic submucous diathermy. The results of the clinical study demonstrated significant reductions in facial pain and nasal bleeding scores for the nostrils treated with cholecalciferol-loaded films in comparison to the nostrils treated with plain films. Furthermore, the endoscopic examination showed good healing for 95% of the cholecalciferol-loaded film-treated nostrils. In conclusion, the optimized film can be considered an opportune approach for enhancing the healing rate of nasal burns and thus reducing the downsides of the diathermy procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soad A Mohamad
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Deraya University, Minya, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M Badwi
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Faculty of Medicine, Minya University, Minya, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud Elrehany
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Deraya University, Minya, Egypt
| | - Sherif Ali
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, New Valley University, New Valley, Egypt
| | - Abdelrahman M Helmy
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Deraya University, Minya, Egypt.
- Pharmaceutical Engineering and 3D Printing (PharmE3D) Lab, Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
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Almotairy A, Alyahya M, Althobaiti A, Almutairi M, Bandari S, Ashour EA, Repka MA. Disulfiram 3D printed film produced via hot-melt extrusion techniques as a potential anticervical cancer candidate. Int J Pharm 2023; 635:122709. [PMID: 36801364 PMCID: PMC10023499 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.122709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Cervical cancer is known globally as one of the most common health problems in women. Indeed, one of the most convenient approaches for its treatment is an appropriate bioadhesive vaginal film. This approach provides a local treatment modality, which inevitably decreases dosing frequency and improves patient compliance. Recently, disulfiram (DSF) has been investigated and demonstrated to possess anticervical cancer activity; therefore, it is employed in this work. The current study aimed to produce a novel, personalized three-dimensional (3D) printed DSF extended-release film using the hot-melt extrusion (HME) and 3D printing technologies. The optimization of the formulation composition and the HME and 3D printing processing temperatures was an important factor for overcoming the DSF heat-sensitivity issue. In addition, the 3D printing speed was specifically the most crucial parameter for alleviating heat-sensitivity concerns, which led to the production of films (F1 and F2) with an acceptable DSF content and good mechanical properties. The bioadhesion film study using sheep cervical tissue indicated a reasonable adhesive peak force (N) of 0.24 ± 0.08 for F1 and 0.40 ± 0.09 for F2, while the work of adhesion (N.mm) for F1 and F2 was 0.28 ± 0.14 and 0.54 ± 0.14, respectively. Moreover, the cumulative in vitro release data indicated that the printed films released DSF for up to 24 h. HME-coupled 3D printing successfully produced a patient-centric and personalized DSF extended-release vaginal film with a reduced dose and longer dosing interval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Almotairy
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology Department, College of Pharmacy Taibah University, Al Madinah AlMunawarah 30001, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Alyahya
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulmajeed Althobaiti
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Mashan Almutairi
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Hail, Hail 81442, Saudi Arabia
| | - Suresh Bandari
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Eman A Ashour
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Michael A Repka
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; Pii Center for Pharmaceutical Technology, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA.
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Wang S, Jiang L, Meng S, Liu C, Wang H, Gao Z, Guo J. Hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles-loaded ion-crosslinked bilayer films with excellent mechanical properties and high bioavailability for buccal delivery. Int J Pharm 2022; 624:122056. [PMID: 35905934 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.122056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Mucoadhesive buccal films (MBFs) become the most promising buccal mucosal delivery system duo to its advantageous properties, including simple preparation technique and better patient compliance. The mechanical properties and mucoadhesion of MBFs are crucial in their successful performance as well as manufacturing and administration. In this study, we prepared hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles-loaded ion-crosslinked bilayer films (CCS-PVA-TPP-FSM@HMSNs) using carboxymethyl chitosan (CCS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) for buccal delivery of furosemide (FSM). The FSM-loaded hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (FSM@HMSNs) were firstly characterized by SEM, TEM, and nitrogen adsorption/desorption. Then, we constructed an ion-crosslinked network using CCS and PVA employed with the solution casting method, and sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) was used as a hydrogen bond crosslinking agent. The formulation was optimized through Box-Behnken design, where the impact of the proportion of the ingredients on the quality of the films was evaluated entirely. Herein, folding endurance, swelling, tensile strength, and adhesion force were selected as response variables. Morphology, mechanical, spectroscopic, thermal, and safety of CCS-PVA-TPP-FSM@HMSNs films were also investigated. The release and permeability behaviors of CCS-PVA-TPP-FSM@HMSNs films were evaluated by in vitro drug release, across isolated porcine buccal and TR146 cell model. The CCS-PVA-TPP-FSM@HMSNs films showed outstanding mechanical properties, suitable bioadhesion, high drug loading, significant sustained-release properties, and improved permeability. In pharmacokinetic study with golden hamster models, the relative bioavailability was increased by 191.54%, and the absolute bioavailability was 82.20%. In summary, this study provides evidence that this innovative CCS-PVA-TPP-FSM@HMSNs films could be a promising and industrialized buccal drug delivery system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangqing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, China; State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Lin Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, China
| | - Saige Meng
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, China; Departmeng of Pharmacy, No. 73 Group Military Hospital of PLA, Xiamen 361003, Fujian Province, China
| | - Chao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Huanhui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, China
| | - Zhonggao Gao
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, China; State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Jianpeng Guo
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, Jilin Province, China.
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Multiple Roles of Chitosan in Mucosal Drug Delivery: An Updated Review. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20050335. [PMID: 35621986 PMCID: PMC9146108 DOI: 10.3390/md20050335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitosan (CS) is a linear polysaccharide obtained by the deacetylation of chitin, which, after cellulose, is the second biopolymer most abundant in nature, being the primary component of the exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects. Since joining the pharmaceutical field, in the early 1990s, CS attracted great interest, which has constantly increased over the years, due to its several beneficial and favorable features, including large availability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, simplicity of chemical modifications, mucoadhesion and permeation enhancer power, joined to its capability of forming films, hydrogels and micro- and nanoparticles. Moreover, its cationic character, which renders it unique among biodegradable polymers, is responsible for the ability of CS to strongly interact with different types of molecules and for its intrinsic antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and hemostatic activities. However, its pH-dependent solubility and susceptibility to ions presence may represent serious drawbacks and require suitable strategies to be overcome. Presently, CS and its derivatives are widely investigated for a great variety of pharmaceutical applications, particularly in drug delivery. Among the alternative routes to overcome the problems related to the classic oral drug administration, the mucosal route is becoming the favorite non-invasive delivery pathway. This review aims to provide an updated overview of the applications of CS and its derivatives in novel formulations intended for different methods of mucosal drug delivery.
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