Error detection mechanisms of the brain: background and prospects

To lie or to tell the truth? The influence of processing the opponent's feedback on the forthcoming choice

Introduction

The brain mechanisms of deceptive behavior are relatively well studied, and the key brain regions involved in its processing were established. At the same time, the brain mechanisms underlying the processes of preparation for deception are less known.

Methods

We studied BOLD-signal changes during the presentation of the opponent's feedback to a previous deceptive or honest action during the computer game. The goal of the game was to mislead the opponent either by means of deception or by means of telling the truth.

Results

As a result, it was shown that several brain regions that were previously demonstrated as involved in deception execution, such as the left anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula, also underlie processes related to deception preparation.

Discussion

The results obtained also allowed us to suggest that brain regions responsible for performance monitoring, intention assessment, suppression of non-selected solutions, and reward processing could be involved in shaping future action selection and preparation for deception. By shedding light on the brain mechanisms underlying deception, our study contributes to a deeper understanding of this complex cognitive process. Furthermore, it emphasizes the significance of exploring brain mechanisms governing the choice between deception and truth at various stages of decision-making.

Impaired Non-Selective Response Inhibition in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Two prominent features of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are the inability to inhibit intrusive thoughts and behaviors and pathological doubt or intolerance of uncertainty. Previous study showed that uncertain context modeled by equiprobable presentation of excitatory (Go) and inhibitory (NoGo) stimuli requires non-selective response inhibition in healthy subjects. In other words, it requires transient global inhibition triggered not only by excitatory stimuli but also by inhibitory stimuli. Meanwhile, it is unknown whether OCD patients show abnormal brain activity of the non-selective response inhibition system. In order to test this assumption, we performed an fMRI study with an equiprobable Go/NoGo task involving fourteen patients with OCD and compared them with 34 healthy controls. Patients with OCD showed pathological slowness in the Go/NoGo task. The non-selective response inhibition system in OCD included all brain areas seen in healthy controls and, in addition, involved the right anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the anterior insula/frontal operculum (AIFO). Moreover, a between-group comparison revealed hypoactivation of brain regions within cingulo-opercular and cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuits in OCD. Among hypoactivated areas, the right ACC and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) were associated with non-selective inhibition. Furthermore, regression analysis showed that OCD slowness was associated with decreased activation in cingulate regions and two brain areas related to non-selective inhibition: the right DLPFC and the right inferior parietal lobule (IPL). These results suggest that non-selective response inhibition is impaired in OCD, which could be a potential explanation for a relationship between inhibitory deficits and the other remarkable characteristic of OCD known as intolerance of uncertainty.

The role of conflict processing mechanism in deception responses

A considerable number of studies have described the potential neural mechanism of deception, but most deception studies have relied upon deception from experimental supervisor instruction. Experimental control (participants follow instructions to deceive without any risk) means that the deception occurs in a way that does not come close to the real deception. In the current study, a neural imaging experiment on deception closer to the real deception was conducted. Event-related potential (ERP) and event-related spectral perturbation (ERSP) techniques were used to explore the neural mechanism of deception. The results showed that deceptive response evoked larger medial-frontal negativity (MFN) and smaller response-locked positivity (RLP) than truthful response. We interpret these findings to indicate that conflict detection and emotional processing are associated with deception. In addition, magnitudes of alpha and beta oscillations after the deceptive response were significantly smaller than those after the truthful response, demonstrating that deception is associated with neural oscillations reflecting conflict adjustment. The results comprehensively characterized the physiological properties of the brain oscillations elicited by a deceptive response and provided a theoretical foundation for detection in practical applications.

Neural mechanisms of deception in a social context: an fMRI replication study

Deception is a form of manipulation aimed at misleading another person by conveying false or truthful messages. Manipulative truthful statements could be considered as sophisticated deception and elicit an increased cognitive load. However, only one fMRI study reported its neural correlates. To provide independent evidence for sophisticated deception, we carried out an fMRI study replicating the experimental paradigm and Bayesian statistical approach utilized in that study. During the experiment, participants played a game against an opponent by sending deliberate deceptive or honest messages. Compared to truth-telling, deceptive intentions, regardless of how they were fulfilled, were associated with increased BOLD signals in the bilateral temporoparietal junction (TPJ), left precuneus, and right superior temporal sulcus (STS). The right TPJ participates in the attribution of mental states, acting in a social context, and moral behaviour. Moreover, the other revealed brain areas have been considered nodes in the theory of mind brain neural system. Therefore, the obtained results reflect an increased demand for socio‑cognitive processes associated with deceptive intentions. We replicated the original study showing the involvement of the right TPJ and expanded upon it by revealing the involvement of the left TPJ, left precuneus and right STS in actions with deceptive intentions.

Cortical Topography of Error-Related High-Frequency Potentials During Erroneous Control in a Continuous Control Brain-Computer Interface

Brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) benefit greatly from performance feedback, but current systems lack automatic, task-independent feedback. Cortical responses elicited from user error have the potential to serve as state-based feedback to BCI decoders. To gain a better understanding of local error potentials, we investigate responsive cortical power underlying error-related potentials (ErrPs) from the human cortex during a one-dimensional center-out BCI task, tracking the topography of high-gamma (70–100 Hz) band power (HBP) specific to BCI error. We measured electrocorticography (ECoG) in three human subjects during dynamic, continuous control over BCI cursor velocity. Subjects used motor imagery and rest to move the cursor toward and subsequently dwell within a target region. We then identified and labeled epochs where the BCI decoder incorrectly moved the cursor in the direction opposite of the subject’s expectations (i.e., BCI error). We found increased HBP in various cortical areas 100–500 ms following BCI error with respect to epochs of correct, intended control. Significant responses were noted in primary somatosensory, motor, premotor, and parietal areas and generally regardless of whether the subject was using motor imagery or rest to move the cursor toward the target. Parts of somatosensory, temporal, and parietal areas exclusively had increased HBP when subjects were using motor imagery. In contrast, only part of the parietal cortex near the angular gyrus exclusively had an increase in HBP during rest. This investigation is, to our knowledge, the first to explore cortical fields changes in the context of continuous control in ECoG BCI. We present topographical changes in HBP characteristic specific to the generation of error. By focusing on continuous control, instead of on discrete control for simple selection, we investigate a more naturalistic setting and provide high ecological validity for characterizing error potentials. Such potentials could be considered as design elements for co-adaptive BCIs in the future as task-independent feedback to the decoder, allowing for more robust and individualized BCIs.

Deceptive but Not Honest Manipulative Actions Are Associated with Increased Interaction between Middle and Inferior Frontal gyri

The prefrontal cortex is believed to be responsible for execution of deceptive behavior and its involvement is associated with greater cognitive efforts. It is also generally assumed that deception is associated with the inhibition of default honest actions. However, the precise neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this process remain largely unknown. The present study was aimed to use functional magnetic resonance imaging to reveal the underlying functional integration within the prefrontal cortex during the task which requires that subjects to deliberately mislead an opponent through the sequential execution of deceptive and honest claims. To address this issue, we performed psychophysiological interaction (PPI) analysis, which allows for statistical assessment of changes in functional relationships between active brain areas in changing psychological contexts. As a result the whole brain PPI-analysis established that both manipulative honest and deceptive claiming were associated with an increase in connectivity between the left middle frontal gyrus and right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ). Taking into account the role played by rTPJ in processes associated with the theory of mind the revealed data can reflect possible influence of socio-cognitive context on the process of selecting manipulative claiming regardless their honest or deceptive nature. Direct comparison between deceptive and honest claims revealed pattern enhancement of coupling between the left middle frontal gyrus and the left inferior frontal gyrus. This finding provided evidence that the execution of deception relies to a greater extent on higher-order hierarchically-organized brain mechanisms of executive control required to select between two competing deceptive or honest task sets.

Putamen Activation Represents an Intrinsic Positive Prediction Error Signal for Visual Search in Repeated Configurations

We investigated fMRI responses to visual search targets appearing at locations that were predicted by the search context. Based on previous work in visual category learning we expected an intrinsic reward prediction error signal in the putamen whenever the target appeared at a location that was predicted with some degree of uncertainty. Comparing target appearance at locations predicted with 50% probability to either locations predicted with 100% probability or unpredicted locations, increased activation was observed in left posterior putamen and adjacent left posterior insula. Thus, our hypothesis of an intrinsic prediction error-like signal was confirmed. This extends the observation of intrinsic prediction error-like signals, driven by intrinsic rather than extrinsic reward, to memory-driven visual search.

Possible role of an error detection mechanism in brain processing of deception: PET-fMRI study

To investigate brain maintenance of deliberate deception the positron emission tomography and the event related functional MRI studies were performed. We used an experimental paradigm that presupposed free choices between equally beneficial deceptive or honest actions. Experimental task simulated the "Cheat" card game which aims to defeat an opponent by sequential deceptive and honest claims. Results of both the PET and the fMRI studies revealed that execution of both deliberately deceptive and honest claims is associated with fronto-parietal brain network comprised of inferior and middle frontal gyri, precentral gyrus (BA 6), caudate nucleus, and inferior parietal lobule. Direct comparison between those claims, balanced in terms of decision making and action outcome (gain and losses), revealed activation of areas specifically associated with deception execution: precentral gyrus (BA 6), caudate nuclei, thalamus and inferior parietal lobule (BA 39/40). The obtained experimental data were discussed in relation to a possible role of an error detection system in processing deliberate deception.

Detection of error related neuronal responses recorded by electrocorticography in humans during continuous movements

Background

Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) can translate the neuronal activity underlying a user’s movement intention into movements of an artificial effector. In spite of continuous improvements, errors in movement decoding are still a major problem of current BMI systems. If the difference between the decoded and intended movements becomes noticeable, it may lead to an execution error. Outcome errors, where subjects fail to reach a certain movement goal, are also present during online BMI operation. Detecting such errors can be beneficial for BMI operation: (i) errors can be corrected online after being detected and (ii) adaptive BMI decoding algorithm can be updated to make fewer errors in the future.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here, we show that error events can be detected from human electrocorticography (ECoG) during a continuous task with high precision, given a temporal tolerance of 300–400 milliseconds. We quantified the error detection accuracy and showed that, using only a small subset of 2×2 ECoG electrodes, 82% of detection information for outcome error and 74% of detection information for execution error available from all ECoG electrodes could be retained.

Conclusions/Significance

The error detection method presented here could be used to correct errors made during BMI operation or to adapt a BMI algorithm to make fewer errors in the future. Furthermore, our results indicate that smaller ECoG implant could be used for error detection. Reducing the size of an ECoG electrode implant used for BMI decoding and error detection could significantly reduce the medical risk of implantation.

Error-related electrocorticographic activity in humans during continuous movements

Brain-machine interface (BMI) devices make errors in decoding. Detecting these errors online from neuronal activity can improve BMI performance by modifying the decoding algorithm and by correcting the errors made. Here, we study the neuronal correlates of two different types of errors which can both be employed in BMI: (i) the execution error, due to inaccurate decoding of the subjects' movement intention; (ii) the outcome error, due to not achieving the goal of the movement. We demonstrate that, in electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings from the surface of the human brain, strong error-related neural responses (ERNRs) for both types of errors can be observed. ERNRs were present in the low and high frequency components of the ECoG signals, with both signal components carrying partially independent information. Moreover, the observed ERNRs can be used to discriminate between error types, with high accuracy (≥83%) obtained already from single electrode signals. We found ERNRs in multiple cortical areas, including motor and somatosensory cortex. As the motor cortex is the primary target area for recording control signals for a BMI, an adaptive motor BMI utilizing these error signals may not require additional electrode implants in other brain areas.

Psychophysiology of neural, cognitive and affective integration: fMRI and autonomic indicants

Behaviour is shaped by environmental challenge in the context of homoeostatic need. Emotional and cognitive processes evoke patterned changes in bodily state that may signal emotional state to others. This dynamic modulation of visceral state is neurally mediated by sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Moreover neural afferents convey representations of the internal state of the body back to the brain to further influence emotion and cognition. Neuroimaging and lesion studies implicate specific regions of limbic forebrain in the behavioural generation of autonomic arousal states. Activity within these regions may predict emotion-specific autonomic response patterns within and between bodily organs, with implications for psychosomatic medicine. Feedback from the viscera is mapped hierarchically in the brain to influence efferent signals, and ultimately at the cortical level to engender and reinforce affective responses and subjective feeling states. Again neuroimaging and patient studies suggest discrete neural substrates for these representations, notably regions of insula and orbitofrontal cortex. Individual differences in conscious access to these interoceptive representations predict differences in emotional experience, but equally the misperception of heightened arousal level may evoke changes in emotional behaviour through engagement of the same neural centres. Perturbation of feedback may impair emotional reactivity and, in the context of inflammatory states give rise to cognitive, affective and psychomotor expressions of illness. Changes in visceral state during emotion may be mirrored in the responses of others, permitting a corresponding representation in the observer. The degree to which individuals are susceptible to this 'contagion' predicts individual differences in questionnaire ratings of empathy. Together these neuroimaging and clinical studies highlight the dynamic relationship between mind and body and help identify neural substrates that may translate thoughts into autonomic arousal and bodily states into feelings that can be shared.

The usefulness of psychophysiology in the maintenance of cognitive life

In connection with the 14th World Congress of Psychophysiology--the Olympics of the Brain--IOP2008, held in my native Sankt-Petersburg, I am happy to state that the conceptualization of Psychophysiology as forming the objective scientific bases upon which the investigation and understanding of human cognitive and emotional processes became possible, was born in this country in 1886, under the wise leadership and personal initiatives of my Grandfather, the great Vladimir Michailovich Bechterev, whose contribution in the Experimental and Clinical Psychophysiology and Human Brain Sciences have been invaluable. The purpose of my present essay is to share with you some of my views and thoughts about the importance of Psychophysiology for the maintenance of daily intellectual life from childhood to adulthood and through the aging process.

Synapses with inhibitory neurons differentiate anterior cingulate from dorsolateral prefrontal pathways associated with cognitive control

The primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) focus attention on relevant signals and suppress noise in cognitive tasks. However, their synaptic interactions and unique roles in cognitive control are unknown. We report that two distinct pathways to DLPFC area 9, one from the neighboring area 46 and the other from the functionally distinct ACC, similarly innervate excitatory neurons associated with selecting relevant stimuli. However, ACC has more prevalent and larger synapses with inhibitory neurons and preferentially innervates calbindin inhibitory neurons, which reduce noise by inhibiting excitatory neurons. In contrast, area 46 mostly innervates calretinin inhibitory neurons, which disinhibit excitatory neurons. These synaptic specializations suggest that ACC has a greater impact in reducing noise in dorsolateral areas during challenging cognitive tasks involving conflict, error, or reversing decisions, mechanisms that are disrupted in schizophrenia. These observations highlight the unique roles of the DLPFC and ACC in cognitive control.

The influence of response conflict on error processing: evidence from event-related fMRI

The ability to detect errors is a crucial prerequisite for the appropriate adjustment of behavior to future situations. In the present event-related fMRI study, we provide evidence for the existence of different error-related networks within the human brain using a Simon task based on coherent motion perception. While errors related to incompatible trials were mainly associated with activation of the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) and the precuneus/posterior cingulate, errors related to trials without pre-response conflict showed specific activation in the right inferior parietal cortex. Despite this functional dissociation of brain networks, conjunction analysis revealed common clusters of activation in the medial wall (dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and medial superior frontal cortex (msFC)), and bilateral inferior frontal gyrus/insula, consistent with earlier reports of error-related BOLD-signal increases. The present data support the view that despite of an overlapping core system of error processing, additional brain areas come into play depending on the existence or absence of cognitive conflict.

An fMRI examination of developmental differences in the neural correlates of uncertainty and decision-making

BACKGROUND

Maturation of prefrontal circuits during adolescence contributes to the development of cognitive processes such as decision-making. Recent theories suggest that these neural changes also play a role in the shift from generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) to depression that often occurs during this developmental period. Cognitive models of the development of GAD highlight the role of intolerance of uncertainty (IU), which can be characterized behaviorally by impairments in decision-making. The present study examines potential developmental differences in frontal regions associated with uncertain decision-making, and tests the impact of IU on these circuits.

METHODS

Twelve healthy adults (ages 19-36) and 12 healthy adolescents (ages 13-17) completed a decision-making task with conditions of varied uncertainty while fMRI scans were acquired. They also completed measures of worry and IU, and a questionnaire about their levels of anxiety and certainty during the task.

RESULTS

Combined group analyses demonstrated significant linear effects of uncertainty on activity within anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Region of interest (ROI)-based analysis found a significant interaction of group and IU ratings in ACC. Increased IU was associated with robust linear increases in ACC activity only in adolescents. An ROI analysis of feedback-related processing found that adolescents demonstrated greater activation during incorrect trials relative to correct trials, while the adults showed no difference in neural activity associated with incorrect and correct feedback.

CONCLUSIONS

This decision-making task was shown to be effective at eliciting uncertainty-related ACC activity in adults and adolescents. Further, IU impacts ACC activity in adolescents during uncertain decision-making, providing preliminary support for a developmental model of GAD.

Neuroscientific Psychophysiology: The International Organization of Psychophysiology (I.O.P.) associated with the United Nations (New York) in the 21st Century

This Presidential Address 2004 emphasizes the pivotal role of Psychophysiology as an integrated neuroscience with a panoply of electrophysiological and neuroimaging technologies for the establishment of methodologically crucial conceptual links for the understanding and mapping of brain functions pertaining to cognitive, emotional and motivational processes. Moreover, Psychophysiology's unique neuroscientific perspective by integrating functions of central and autonomic nervous systems with behavior in health and disease is underlined. Based on these developments, the progress of rigorous neuroscientific Clinical Psychophysiology offers possibilities for diagnosis, treatment and objective evaluation of therapeutic outcome in various pathological conditions.