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Tanaka T, Tawara M, Suzuki H, Kaneko MK, Kato Y. Identification of the Binding Epitope of an Anti-Mouse CCR6 Monoclonal Antibody (C 6Mab-13) Using 1× Alanine Scanning. Antibodies (Basel) 2023; 12:antib12020032. [PMID: 37218898 DOI: 10.3390/antib12020032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
CC chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6) is one of the members of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family that is upregulated in many immune-related cells, such as B lymphocytes, effector and memory T cells, regulatory T cells, and immature dendritic cells. The coordination between CCR6 and its ligand CC motif chemokine ligand 20 (CCL20) is deeply involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases, such as cancer, psoriasis, and autoimmune diseases. Thus, CCR6 is an attractive target for therapy and is being investigated as a diagnostic marker for various diseases. In a previous study, we developed an anti-mouse CCR6 (mCCR6) monoclonal antibody (mAb), C6Mab-13 (rat IgG1, kappa), that was applicable for flow cytometry by immunizing a rat with the N-terminal peptide of mCCR6. In this study, we investigated the binding epitope of C6Mab-13 using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) method, which were conducted with respect to the synthesized point-mutated-peptides within the 1-20 amino acid region of mCCR6. In the ELISA results, C6Mab-13 lost its ability to react to the alanine-substituted peptide of mCCR6 at Asp11, thereby identifying Asp11 as the epitope of C6Mab-13. In our SPR analysis, the dissociation constants (KD) could not be calculated for the G9A and D11A mutants due to the lack of binding. The SPR analysis demonstrated that the C6Mab-13 epitope comprises Gly9 and Asp11. Taken together, the key binding epitope of C6Mab-13 was determined to be located around Asp11 on mCCR6. Based on the epitope information, C6Mab-13 could be useful for further functional analysis of mCCR6 in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Tanaka
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Mayuki Tawara
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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Mechanisms for the Invasion and Dissemination of Salmonella. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY 2022; 2022:2655801. [PMID: 35722038 PMCID: PMC9203224 DOI: 10.1155/2022/2655801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 05/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica is a gastroenteric Gram-negative bacterium that can infect both humans and animals and causes millions of illnesses per year around the world. Salmonella infections usually occur after the consumption of contaminated food or water. Infections with Salmonella species can cause diseases ranging from enterocolitis to typhoid fever. Salmonella has developed multiple strategies to invade and establish a systemic infection in the host. Different cell types, including epithelial cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and M cells, are important in the infection process of Salmonella. Dissemination throughout the body and colonization of remote organs are hallmarks of Salmonella infection. There are several routes for the dissemination of Salmonella typhimurium. This review summarizes the current understanding of the infection mechanisms of Salmonella. Additionally, different routes of Salmonella infection will be discussed. In this review, the strategies used by Salmonella enterica to establish persistent infection will be discussed. Understanding both the bacterial and host factors leading to the successful colonization of Salmonella enterica may enable the rational design of effective therapeutic strategies.
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Kohli K, Pillarisetty VG, Kim TS. Key chemokines direct migration of immune cells in solid tumors. Cancer Gene Ther 2022; 29:10-21. [PMID: 33603130 PMCID: PMC8761573 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-021-00303-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 79.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Immune cell infiltration into solid tumors, their movement within the tumor microenvironment (TME), and interaction with other immune cells are controlled by their directed migration towards gradients of chemokines. Dysregulated chemokine signaling in TME favors the growth of tumors, exclusion of effector immune cells, and abundance of immunosuppressive cells. Key chemokines directing the migration of immune cells into tumor tissue have been identified. In this review, we discuss well-studied chemokine receptors that regulate migration of effector and immunosuppressive immune cells in the context of cancer immunology. We discuss preclinical models that have described the role of respective chemokine receptors in immune cell migration into TME and review preclinical and clinical studies that target chemokine signaling as standalone or combination therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karan Kohli
- grid.34477.330000000122986657University of Washington, Department of Surgery, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Venu G. Pillarisetty
- grid.34477.330000000122986657University of Washington, Department of Surgery, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Teresa S. Kim
- grid.34477.330000000122986657University of Washington, Department of Surgery, Seattle, WA USA
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Popov J, Caputi V, Nandeesha N, Rodriguez DA, Pai N. Microbiota-Immune Interactions in Ulcerative Colitis and Colitis Associated Cancer and Emerging Microbiota-Based Therapies. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:11365. [PMID: 34768795 PMCID: PMC8584103 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic autoimmune disorder affecting the colonic mucosa. UC is a subtype of inflammatory bowel disease along with Crohn's disease and presents with varying extraintestinal manifestations. No single etiology for UC has been found, but a combination of genetic and environmental factors is suspected. Research has focused on the role of intestinal dysbiosis in the pathogenesis of UC, including the effects of dysbiosis on the integrity of the colonic mucosal barrier, priming and regulation of the host immune system, chronic inflammation, and progression to tumorigenesis. Characterization of key microbial taxa and their implications in the pathogenesis of UC and colitis-associated cancer (CAC) may present opportunities for modulating intestinal inflammation through microbial-targeted therapies. In this review, we discuss the microbiota-immune crosstalk in UC and CAC, as well as the evolution of microbiota-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Popov
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada;
- College of Medicine and Health, University College Cork, T12 XF62 Cork, Ireland
| | - Valentina Caputi
- Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
| | - Nandini Nandeesha
- School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, D02 YN77 Dublin, Ireland;
| | | | - Nikhil Pai
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada;
- Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada
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Snook JD, Chesson CB, Peniche AG, Dann SM, Paulucci A, Pinchuk IV, Rudra JS. Peptide nanofiber–CaCO3 composite microparticles as adjuvant-free oral vaccine delivery vehicles. J Mater Chem B 2016; 4:1640-1649. [DOI: 10.1039/c5tb01623a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
To combat mucosal pathogens that cause gastrointestinal (GI) infections, local mucosal immunity is required which is best achieved through oral vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D. Snook
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology
- University of Texas Medical Branch
- Galveston
- USA
| | - Charles B. Chesson
- Institute for Translation Sciences
- University of Texas Medical Branch
- Galveston
- USA
- Sealy Center for Vaccine Development
| | - Alex G. Peniche
- Department of Internal Medicine-Division of Infectious Diseases
- University of Texas Medical Branch
- Galveston
- USA
| | - Sara M. Dann
- Institute for Translation Sciences
- University of Texas Medical Branch
- Galveston
- USA
- Department of Internal Medicine-Division of Infectious Diseases
| | | | - Iryna V. Pinchuk
- Institute for Translation Sciences
- University of Texas Medical Branch
- Galveston
- USA
- Department of Internal Medicine-Division of Gastroenterology
| | - Jai S. Rudra
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology
- University of Texas Medical Branch
- Galveston
- USA
- Sealy Center for Vaccine Development
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Liu J, Ke F, Xu Z, Liu Z, Zhang L, Yan S, Wang Z, Wang H, Wang H. CCR6 is a prognostic marker for overall survival in patients with colorectal cancer, and its overexpression enhances metastasis in vivo. PLoS One 2014; 9:e101137. [PMID: 24979261 PMCID: PMC4076197 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The chemokine receptor CCR6 has been recently shown to be associated with colorectal cancer (CRC) progression. However, the direct evidence for whether CCR6 in tumors is a prognostic marker for the survival of patients with CRC and whether it plays a critical role in CRC metastasis in vivo is lacking. Here we show that the levels of CCR6 were upregulated in CRC cell lines and primary CRC clinical samples. CCR6 upregulation was closely correlated with disease stages and the survival time of CRC patients. Knockdown of CCR6 inhibited the migration of CRC cells in vitro. Overexpression of CCR6 in CRC cells increased their proliferation, migration, and colony formation in vitro and promoted their metastatic potential in vivo. CCR6 activated Akt signaling, upregulated metastasis genes and downregulated metastasis suppressor genes. Selective targeting of CCR6 in tumors dramatically inhibited the growth of CRC in mice. Thus, the tumor expression of CCR6 plays a critical role in CRC metastasis, upregulated CCR6 predicts poor survival in CRC patients, and targeting CCR6 expression in tumors may be a potential therapeutic strategy for CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlin Liu
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Fang Ke
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenyao Xu
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhaoyuan Liu
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lingyun Zhang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Sha Yan
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhe Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Honglin Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory for Tumor Microenvironment and Inflammation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW In this article, we provide an update of the latest findings related to the innate immunity in the small intestine. In particular, we will focus on innate immune receptors and antimicrobial strategies that keep luminal bacteria and viral pathogens under control to avoid mucosal damage. These strategies include IgA secretion and antimicrobial peptides produced by Paneth cells, and downregulation or anergy of the innate immune receptors themselves. RECENT FINDINGS Pattern-recognition receptors are the main target in the study of innate immunity in the intestinal mucosa due to their involvement in the regulation of host-commensal interactions. It has been shown that TLR5-deficient mice develop metabolic syndrome and have altered intestinal microbiota. On the contrary, NOD2 has been associated with the activation of autophagy and the inhibition of TLR4. Moreover, NOD2 has been described to be essential to keep a feedback loop in the host-commensal homeostasis, through the kinase Rip-2. SUMMARY Innate immunity in the small intestine is mainly characterized by IgA secretion and Paneth cell antimicrobial function. In both cases pattern-recognition receptors, Toll-like receptors and nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain-like receptors, are involved. A better understanding of the innate immunity in the small intestine would provide valuable information to develop vaccines against pathogens.
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Mizoguchi A, Mizoguchi E. Animal models of IBD: linkage to human disease. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2010; 10:578-87. [PMID: 20860919 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2010.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2010] [Revised: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 05/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneous development of intestinal inflammation in many different kinds of genetically engineered mice as well as the presence of numerous susceptibility genes in humans suggests that inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is mediated by more complicated mechanisms than previously predicted. The human genetic studies implicate some major pathways in the pathogenesis of IBD, including epithelial defense against commensal microbiota, the IL-23/Th17 axis, and immune regulation. Murine IBD models, which are genetically engineered to lack some susceptibility genes, have been generated, and have provided useful insights into the therapeutic potential of targeting the susceptibility genes directly or their downstream pathways indirectly for IBD. This review summarizes current information related to the function of IBD-associated genes as derived from genetically engineered mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Mizoguchi
- Molecular Pathology Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
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Accumulation of DC in Lamina Propria Induced by FMS-Like Tyrosine Kinase 3 Ligand Aggravates the Intestinal Inflammatory Response During Endotoxemia. Inflammation 2009; 33:34-45. [DOI: 10.1007/s10753-009-9156-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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10
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Westendorf AM, Fleissner D, Hansen W, Buer J. T cells, dendritic cells and epithelial cells in intestinal homeostasis. Int J Med Microbiol 2009; 300:11-8. [PMID: 19781991 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2009.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The mucosal immune system of the intestinal tract is continuously exposed to both potential pathogens and beneficial commensal microorganism. A variety of mechanisms contribute to the ability of the gut to either react or remain tolerant to antigen present in the intestinal lumen. Antigens of the gut commensals are not simply ignored, but rather trigger an active immunosuppressive process, which prevents the outcome of immunopathology. The aim of this review is to provide an update on the mechanism of intestinal homeostasis, with particular focus on the complex crosstalk between T cells, dendritic cells and intestinal epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid M Westendorf
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstrasse 55, D-45122 Essen, Germany.
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11
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Hord NG. Eukaryotic-microbiota crosstalk: potential mechanisms for health benefits of prebiotics and probiotics. Annu Rev Nutr 2008; 28:215-31. [PMID: 18489258 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.nutr.28.061807.155402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The ability to link dietary consumption of prebiotic food ingredients and probiotic microorganisms to health benefits rests, in part, on our ability to identify both the extent to which these factors alter human microbiome activity and/or structure and the ability to engage eukaryotic cells necessary to transduce signals originating from the microbiome. The human microbiome consists of bacterial, archaeal, and fungal components that reside in mucosal surfaces of the gut, the airways, and the urogenital tract. Characterization of the symbiotic nature of the relationship between eukaryotic cells and the bacterial and archaeal components of the microbiota has revealed significant contributions in energy balance, bowel function, immunologic function, sensory perception, glycemic control, and blood pressure regulation. Elucidating the complex interactions between the microbiota and their associated epithelial, immune, and neural cells may provide mechanistic insights and a rational basis for our belief that dietary consumption of probiotic microorganisms and prebiotics produces health benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norman G Hord
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA.
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12
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Abstract
The gut mucosa is exposed to a large community of commensal bacteria that are required for the processing of nutrients and the education of the local immune system. Conversely, the gut immune system generates innate and adaptive responses that shape the composition of the local microbiota. One striking feature of intestinal adaptive immunity is its ability to generate massive amounts of noninflammatory immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies through multiple follicular and extrafollicular pathways that operate in the presence or absence of cognate T-B cell interactions. Here we discuss the role of intestinal IgA in host-commensal mutualism, immune protection, and tolerance and summarize recent advances on the role of innate immune cells in intestinal IgA production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cerutti
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, and Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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Mizoguchi A, Mizoguchi E. Inflammatory bowel disease, past, present and future: lessons from animal models. J Gastroenterol 2008; 43:1-17. [PMID: 18297430 DOI: 10.1007/s00535-007-2111-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2007] [Accepted: 08/29/2007] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating data from animal models indicate that Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is mediated by a much more complicated mechanism than previously predicted. For example, the role of an individual molecule in the pathogenesis of IBD distinctly differs depending on several factors, including the fundamental mechanism of induction of the disease, the target cell type, the phase of disease, and the environment. Therefore, it has been difficult in the past to fully explain the complicated mechanism. Novel concepts have recently been proposed to further explain the complicated mechanism of IBD. In this review, we introduce past, current, and possible future concepts for IBD models regarding T helper (Th) 1, Th2, and Th17, antigen sampling and presentation, regulatory cell networks, NOD2, Toll-like receptors, bacteria/epithelia interaction, stem cells, autophagy, microRNAs, and glycoimmunology, and we also discuss the relevance of these new concepts, developed at the bench (in animal models), to the bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Mizoguchi
- Department of Pathology, Experimental Pathology, Simches 8234, Massachusetts General Hospital, 185 Cambridge Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Gastrointestinal disease caused by Salmonella species leads to significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. The use of various animal models has greatly advanced understanding of Salmonella pathogenesis at intestinal and systemic sites. This review will emphasize recent advances in the understanding of intestinal Salmonella infections. RECENT FINDINGS Recent research has focused on bacterial products and the host pathogen recognition receptors involved in the activation of immune pathways. In particular, activation of Toll-like receptor 5 and Ipaf by Salmonella flagellin has been a major finding. The discovery of cryptopatches as novel lymphoid follicles and the characterization of intestinal dendritic cell populations have been examined in the context of Salmonella infections. The development and use of the streptomycin pretreated mouse model of enterocolitis has allowed researchers to probe the host factors contributing to intestinal immunopathology. Furthermore, the analysis of microbiota in Salmonella infections has provided new insights regarding the role of inflammation in gastrointestinal diseases. In addition, the contributions of specific Salmonella type 3-secreted effectors to the establishment and modulation of inflammation have been further refined. SUMMARY New advances in animal models have allowed researchers to further define the contribution of specific bacterial and host factors involved in Salmonella-induced enterocolitis.
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Young Y, Abreu MT. Advances in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2007; 8:470-7. [PMID: 17105686 DOI: 10.1007/s11894-006-0037-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Most people do not develop inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in spite of the density of the commensal flora. In the past few years, several areas of gut mucosal immunology have emerged that will permit advances in the management of IBD at the bedside. The commensal flora is only beginning to be fully appreciated as another metabolic organ in the body. Innate immunity as it relates to the gut has complemented our understanding of the adaptive immune response. The most important susceptibility gene described for Crohn's disease, the NOD2 gene, participates in the innate immune response to pathogens. Patients carrying NOD2 mutations have an increased adaptive immune response to commensal organisms as measured by higher titers of antimicrobial antibodies, such as anti-CBir and anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies. Toll-like receptors expressed by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in the gut and intestinal epithelial cells also play a role in recognition of intestinal flora. Within the APC category, dendritic cells link the innate and adaptive immune systems and shape the nature of the adaptive immune response to commensal bacteria. With respect to adaptive immunity, a new signaling pathway involving a distinct helper CD4 T-cell subset producing interleukin-17 may become a target for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. This review focuses on developments likely to culminate in advances in patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Young
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 1425 Madison Avenue, 11-23, New York, NY 10029, USA
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