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Chen YQ, Han S, Yin B. Why help others? Insights from rodent to human early childhood research. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 17:1058352. [PMID: 37025110 PMCID: PMC10070705 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1058352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Helping behavior are actions aiming at assisting another individual in need or to relieve their distress. The occurrence of this behavior not only depends on automated physiological mechanisms, such as imitation or emotional contagion, that is, the individual's emotion and physiological state matching with others, but also needs motivation to sustain. From a comparative and developmental perspective, we discover that the motivation for helping behavior has a deep foundation both phylogenetically and ontogenetically. For example, empathic concern for others, relieving personal distress and the desire for social contact are universal motivations across rodents, non-human primates and human early childhoods. Therefore, a circle-layered model integrating evidences for motivation for helping behavior from rodent to human early childhood research is proposed: the inner circle contains the emotional-behavioral system and the outer circle contains the affective-cognitive system. The application of this model has significance for both behavioral neuroscience research and cultivating prosocial behavior in human society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Qin Chen
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Shu Han
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Bin Yin
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- *Correspondence: Bin Yin,
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Noten MMPG, van der Heijden KB, Huijbregts SCJ, van Goozen SHM, Swaab H. Infant emotional responses to challenge predict empathic behavior in toddlerhood. Dev Psychobiol 2020; 62:454-470. [PMID: 31489632 PMCID: PMC7217152 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Although emotional responses are theorized to be important in the development of empathy, findings regarding the prediction of early empathic behavior by infant behavioral and physiological responses are mixed. This study examined whether behavioral and physiological responses to mild emotional challenge (still face paradigm and car seat task) in 118 infants at age 6 months predicted empathic distress and empathic concern in response to an empathy-evoking task (i.e, experimenter's distress simulation) at age 20 months. Correlation analyses, corrected for sex and baseline levels of physiological arousal, showed that stronger physiological and behavioral responses to emotional challenge at age 6 months were positively related to observed empathic distress, but not empathic concern, at age 20 months. Linear regression analyses indicated that physiological and behavioral responses to challenge at 6 months independently predicted empathic distress at 20 months, which suggests an important role for both physiological and behavioral emotional responses in empathy development. In addition, curvilinear regression analyses showed quadratic associations between behavioral responses at 6 months, and empathic distress and empathic concern at 20 months, which indicates that moderate levels of behavioral responsivity predict the highest levels of empathic distress and empathic concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malou M. P. G. Noten
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental SciencesLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and CognitionLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Kristiaan B. van der Heijden
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental SciencesLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and CognitionLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Stephan C. J. Huijbregts
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental SciencesLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and CognitionLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Stephanie H. M. van Goozen
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental SciencesLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
- School of PsychologyCardiff UniversityCardiffUnited Kingdom
| | - Hanna Swaab
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental SciencesLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and CognitionLeiden UniversityLeidenThe Netherlands
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3
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Noten MMPG, Van der Heijden KB, Huijbregts SCJ, Van Goozen SHM, Swaab H. Associations between empathy, inhibitory control, and physical aggression in toddlerhood. Dev Psychobiol 2020; 62:871-881. [PMID: 31998974 PMCID: PMC7496157 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Impaired empathy has been associated with aggression in children, adolescents and adults, but results have been contradictory for the preschool period. Impaired inhibitory control also increases the risk of aggression, and possibly moderates empathy‐aggression associations. The current study investigated whether empathy and inhibitory control are associated with aggression in toddlerhood. Furthermore, we aimed to clarify the role of inhibitory control in empathy and aggression, specifically, whether inhibitory control moderates the association between empathy and aggression. During a laboratory visit at age 30 months (N = 103), maternal reports of physical aggression were obtained and child inhibitory control was examined using a gift delay task. Empathy was examined by obtaining behavioral observations and recording physiological responses (heart rate response and respiratory sinus arrhythmia response) to an empathy‐eliciting event (i.e., simulated distress). Reduced inhibitory control was associated with more aggression. Behavioral and physiological indicators of empathy were not associated with aggression. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed an interaction effect of heart rate response to distress simulation with inhibitory control in the prediction of aggression. Post hoc analyses indicated a negative association between heart rate response and aggression when inhibitory control was high, but a positive association was found in toddlers who demonstrated low inhibitory control. These results suggest that children are less aggressive when they have both high levels of empathy and inhibitory control. Therefore, both empathy and inhibition are important targets for interventions aiming to reduce or prevent aggression at a young age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malou M P G Noten
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Kristiaan B Van der Heijden
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Stephan C J Huijbregts
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Stephanie H M Van Goozen
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.,School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Hanna Swaab
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Noten MMPG, van der Heijden KB, Huijbregts SCJ, Bouw N, van Goozen SHM, Swaab H. Empathic distress and concern predict aggression in toddlerhood: The moderating role of sex. Infant Behav Dev 2019; 54:57-65. [PMID: 30622054 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Impaired empathy is an important risk factor of aggression, but results are contradictory in toddlerhood. The association between empathy and aggression may differ for empathic distress and empathic concern in response to empathy-evoking situations, and for boys and girls. Therefore, the current study investigated whether empathic distress and empathic concern at age 20 months (N = 133, 69 boys) predicted aggression at ages 20 and 30 months (N = 119, 62 boys), while taking a potential moderating effect of sex into account. Empathic behavior was observed during a distress simulation task 20 months post-partum. Physical aggression was assessed through maternal report, using the Physical Aggression Scale for Early Childhood. Linear regression analyses revealed sex differences in the associations between empathic distress and concern on the one hand and physical aggression at age 20 months on the other. Furthermore, physical aggression at age 30 months was predicted by the interaction of sex with empathic distress at age 20 months, while controlling for aggression at age 20 months. More empathic distress and concern were associated with less physical aggression in girls, but not in boys. The findings indicate that the prediction of physical aggression by empathic distress was more robust over time than for empathic concern. This study sheds new light on the intricate relationship between empathy, aggression, and sex from a developmental perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M P G Noten
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - K B van der Heijden
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - S C J Huijbregts
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - N Bouw
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - S H M van Goozen
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - H Swaab
- Department of Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
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McHarg G, Fink E, Hughes C. Crying babies, empathic toddlers, responsive mothers and fathers: Exploring parent-toddler interactions in an empathy paradigm. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 179:23-37. [PMID: 30472468 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The ability to display caring responses to another child's distress is a key aspect of early empathy that is facilitated by parental socialization. However, existing studies typically involve lab settings and focus on toddlers' unsupported responses to adult simulations of distress, raising questions about their ecological validity. Framed within the New Fathers and Mothers Study, the current study involved 156 British toddlers (Mage = 24.35 months, SD = 0.73) who were filmed at home with either their mother or father (87 mothers and 69 fathers) in a novel paradigm involving a lifelike crying baby doll. Capitalizing on the inclusion of both fathers and mothers, a key question concerned effects of parent-toddler dyad gender composition on both global ratings of toddlers' displays of empathic concern and more specific indicators, including toddlers' attentional, emotional, and behavioral responses. Whereas parental responses did not differ by either child or parent gender and appeared to be closely attuned to child behavior, toddlers' responses showed effects of both (a) child gender, evident in higher rates of emotion labeling in girls than in boys (even when controlling for language ability), and (b) parent gender, evident in higher levels of empathic concern for girls observed with fathers than for those observed with mothers. These findings are discussed within the context of empathy development and parental socialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle McHarg
- Centre for Family Research, Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3RQ, UK.
| | - Elian Fink
- Centre for Family Research, Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3RQ, UK
| | - Claire Hughes
- Centre for Family Research, Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3RQ, UK
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Crespo-Llado MM, Vanderwert R, Roberti E, Geangu E. Eight-month-old infants' behavioral responses to peers' emotions as related to the asymmetric frontal cortex activity. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17152. [PMID: 30464309 PMCID: PMC6249297 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35219-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Infants are sensitive to and converge emotionally with peers' distress. It is unclear whether these responses extend to positive affect and whether observing peer emotions motivates infants' behaviors. This study investigates 8-month-olds' asymmetric frontal EEG during peers' cry and laughter, and its relation to approach and withdrawal behaviors. Participants observed videos of infant crying or laughing during two separate sessions. Frontal EEG alpha power was recorded during the first, while infants' behaviors and emotional expressions were recorded during the second session. Facial and vocal expressions of affect suggest that infants converge emotionally with their peers' distress, and, to a certain extent, with their happiness. At group level, the crying peer elicited right lateralized frontal activity. However, those infants with reduced right and increased left frontal activity in this situation, were more likely to approach their peer. Overall, 8-month-olds did not show asymmetric frontal activity in response to peer laughter. But, those infants who tended to look longer at their happy peer were more likely to respond with left lateralized frontal activity. The link between variations in left frontal activity and simple approach behaviors indicates the presence of a motivational dimension to infants' responses to distressed peers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria M Crespo-Llado
- Lancaster University Department of Psychology Bailrigg, Fylde College, Lancaster, UK
| | - Ross Vanderwert
- Cardiff University Centre for Human Developmental Science School of Psychology - Cardiff University Tower Building, Park Place, Cardiff, UK
| | - Elisa Roberti
- Università degli Studi di Milano - Bicocca Department of Psychology, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Geangu
- University of York, Department of Psychology, Heslington, York, UK.
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