Effects of Monocular Perceptual Learning on Binocular Visual Processing in Adolescent and Adult Amblyopia

Hierarchical Bayesian augmented Hebbian reweighting model of perceptual learning

The augmented Hebbian reweighting model (AHRM) has proven effective in modeling the collective performance of observers in perceptual learning studies. In this work, we introduce a novel hierarchical Bayesian version of the AHRM (HB-AHRM), which allows us to model the learning curves of individual participants and the entire population within a unified framework. We compare the performance of HB-AHRM with that of a Bayesian inference procedure, which independently estimates posterior distributions of model parameters for each participant without using a hierarchical structure. To address the substantial computational challenges, we propose a method for approximating the likelihood function in the AHRM through feature engineering and linear regression, increasing the speed of the estimation process by a factor of 20,000. This enhancement enables the HB-AHRM to compute the posterior distributions of hyperparameters and model parameters at the population, subject, and test levels, facilitating statistical inferences across these layers. Although developed in the context of a single experiment, the HB-AHRM and its associated methods are broadly applicable to data from various perceptual learning studies, offering predictions of human performance at both individual and population levels. Furthermore, the approximated likelihood approach may prove useful in fitting other stochastic models that lack analytic solutions.

Perceptual learning improves discrimination but does not reduce distortions in appearance

Human perceptual sensitivity often improves with training, a phenomenon known as "perceptual learning." Another important perceptual dimension is appearance, the subjective sense of stimulus magnitude. Are training-induced improvements in sensitivity accompanied by more accurate appearance? Here, we examined this question by measuring both discrimination (sensitivity) and estimation (appearance) responses to near-horizontal motion directions, which are known to be repulsed away from horizontal. Participants performed discrimination and estimation tasks before and after training in either the discrimination or the estimation task or none (control group). Human observers who trained in either discrimination or estimation exhibited improvements in discrimination accuracy, but estimation repulsion did not decrease; instead, it either persisted or increased. Hence, distortions in perception can be exacerbated after perceptual learning. We developed a computational observer model in which perceptual learning arises from increases in the precision of underlying neural representations, which explains this counterintuitive finding. For each observer, the fitted model accounted for discrimination performance, the distribution of estimates, and their changes with training. Our empirical findings and modeling suggest that learning enhances distinctions between categories, a potentially important aspect of real-world perception and perceptual learning.

Intermodulation frequency components in steady-state visual evoked potentials: Generation, characteristics and applications

The steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs), evoked by dual-frequency or multi-frequency stimulation, likely contains intermodulation frequency components (IMs). Visual IMs are products of nonlinear integration of neural signals and can be evoked by various paradigms that induce neural interaction. IMs have demonstrated many interesting and important characteristics in cognitive psychology, clinical neuroscience, brain-computer interface and other fields, and possess substantial research potential. In this paper, we first review the definition of IMs and summarize the stimulation paradigms capable of inducing them, along with the possible neural origins of IMs. Subsequently, we describe the characteristics and derived applications of IMs in previous studies, and then introduced three signal processing methods favored by researchers to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio of IMs. Finally, we summarize the characteristics of IMs, and propose several potential future research directions related to IMs.

Interactions between excitatory neurons and parvalbumin interneurons in V1 underlie neural mechanisms of amblyopia and visual stimulation treatment

As the main cause of visual function deficits in children and adolescents worldwide, amblyopia causes serious impairment of monocular visual acuity and stereopsis. The recovery of visual functions from amblyopia beyond the critical period is slow and incomplete due to the limited plasticity of the mature cortex; notably, visual stimulation training seems to be an effective therapeutic strategy in clinical practice. However, the precise neural basis and cellular mechanisms that underlie amblyopia and visual stimulation treatment remain to be elucidated. Using monocular deprivation in juvenile mice to model amblyopia, we employed two-photon calcium imaging and chemogenetic techniques to investigate the visual responses of individual excitatory neurons and parvalbumin (PV+) interneurons in the primary visual cortex (V1) of amblyopic mice. We demonstrate that amblyopic mice exhibit an excitation/inhibition (E/I) imbalance. Moreover, visual stimulation decreases the response of PV+ interneurons, reactivates the ocular dominance plasticity of excitatory neurons, and promotes vision recovery in adult amblyopic mice. Our results reveal a dynamic E/I balance between excitatory neurons and PV+ interneurons that may underlie the neural mechanisms of amblyopia during cortical development and visual stimulation-mediated functional recovery from adult amblyopia, providing evidence for therapeutic applications that rely on reactivating adult cortical plasticity.

Binocular imbalance measured by SSVEP predicts impaired stereoacuity in amblyopia

Purpose

The current study aims to implement steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) in quantifying the binocular imbalance of amblyopia and to assess the predictive value of SSVEP-derived indices for amblyopic stereoacuity.

Methods

We measure frequency-tagged SSVEP responses elicited by each eye (F1 = 6 Hz through the fellow eye; F2 = 7.5 Hz through the amblyopic eye) within a binocular rivalry paradigm among a cohort of anisometropic amblyopic observers (n = 29, mean age: 12 years). Binocular suppression was quantified by assessing the disparity in SSVEP amplitudes between the eyes, while the strength of interocular interaction was evaluated through the intermodulation response at F1+F2 = 13.5 Hz. Subsequent analyses explored the associations between these neural indices and relevant behavioral metrics in amblyopia.

Results

Results reveal a significant difference in SSVEP amplitudes elicited from the fellow eye and the amblyopic eye, with the former exhibiting notably higher responses. Moreover, the fellow eye demonstrated prolonged dominance duration compared to its amblyopic counterpart. Furthermore, a negative correlation between binocular suppression and interocular interaction was observed, with stereoacuity showing a significant correlation with binocular suppression. Utilizing stepwise mulptiple linear regression analysis, we established that a predictive model combining binocular suppression and visual acuity of the amblyopic eye provided the best prediction of stereoacuity.

Conclusions

These results highlight the potential of binocular suppression, as assessed by SSVEPs within a binocular rivalry paradigm, as a promising neural predictor of stereopsis in amblyopia.

Binocularly incongruent, multifrequency-coded SSVEP in VR: feasibility and characteristics

Objective.Steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) in response to flickering stimuli are popular in brain-computer interfacing but their implementation in virtual reality (VR) offers new opportunities also for clinical applications. While traditional SSVEP target selection relies on single-frequency stimulation of both eyes simultaneously, further called congruent stimulation, recent studies attempted to improve the information transfer rate by using dual-frequency-coded SSVEP where each eye is presented with a stimulus flickering at a different frequency, further called incongruent stimulation. However, few studies have investigated incongruent multifrequency-coded SSVEP (MultiIncong-SSVEP).Approach.This paper reports on a systematical investigation of incongruent dual-, triple-, and quadruple-frequency-coded SSVEP for use in VR, several of which are entirely novel, and compares their performance with that of congruent dual-frequency-coded SSVEP.Main results.We were able to confirm the presence of a summation effect when comparing monocular- and binocular single-frequency congruent stimulation, and a suppression effect when comparing monocular- and binocular dual-frequency incongruent stimulation, as both tap into the binocular vision capabilities which, when hampered, could signal amblyopia.Significance.In sum, our findings not only evidence the potential of VR-based binocularly incongruent SSVEP but also underscore the importance of paradigm choice and decoder design to optimize system performance and user comfort.

Reconnecting Anisometropic Amblyopic Eyes to the Cortex: VEP-Based Auditory Biofeedback

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a visual rehabilitation method for anisometropic amblyopia that uses visual evoked potential (VEP) parameters and sound biofeedback to increase objectiveness.

DESIGN

an observational, case-controlled trial.

SETTING

Ophthalmology Clinic, Emergency County Hospital, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.

PARTICIPANTS

Sixteen subjects with amblyopic anisometropia, aged 15-57, and sixteen controls, aged 24-33, were included.

INTERVENTIONS

Subjects were divided into two groups. The control group, composed of normal-vision subjects, and the amblyopic group received 10 training sessions. The rehabilitation program lasted 10 min, took place twice a week, and ran over five consecutive weeks. During each session, the subjects were asked to fixate on a target on the computer screen and were instructed to keep the fixation and maintain the sound of the biofeedback at high frequency.

MAIN MEASURES

The study assessed the main visual parameters at baseline, after 10 sessions, and 1, 3, 6, and 12 months after treatment. Performance was evaluated by measuring visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and reading velocity (words/minute).

RESULTS

In the experimental group, mean BCVA improved with two rows, which means an improvement in the LogMARLogMAR scale with an average of nine letters. These values tended to be maintained over time. Both groups showed better reading velocities after training, but this parameter has undergone large variability during follow-ups. Contrast sensitivity was also improved and stable.

CONCLUSIONS

Visual rehabilitation with the Retimax Vision Trainer can improve visual performance in patients with amblyopia after the critical period, an improvement that is maintained in most cases for at least one year after treatment.

Hierarchical Bayesian Augmented Hebbian Reweighting Model of Perceptual Learning

The Augmented Hebbian Reweighting Model (AHRM) has been effectively utilized to model the collective performance of observers in various perceptual learning studies. In this work, we have introduced a novel hierarchical Bayesian Augmented Hebbian Reweighting Model (HB-AHRM) to simultaneously model the learning curves of individual participants and the entire population within a single framework. We have compared its performance to that of a Bayesian Inference Procedure (BIP), which independently estimates the posterior distributions of model parameters for each individual subject without employing a hierarchical structure. To cope with the substantial computational demands, we developed an approach to approximate the likelihood function in the AHRM with feature engineering and linear regression, increasing the speed of the estimation procedure by 20,000 times. The HB-AHRM has enabled us to compute the joint posterior distribution of hyperparameters and parameters at the population, observer, and test levels, facilitating statistical inferences across these levels. While we have developed this methodology within the context of a single experiment, the HB-AHRM and the associated modeling techniques can be readily applied to analyze data from various perceptual learning experiments and provide predictions of human performance at both the population and individual levels. The likelihood approximation concept introduced in this study may have broader utility in fitting other stochastic models lacking analytic forms.

Adaptation of Ocular Opponency Neurons Mediates Attention-Induced Ocular Dominance Plasticity

Previous research has shown that ocular dominance can be biased by prolonged attention to one eye. The ocular-opponency-neuron model of binocular rivalry has been proposed as a candidate account for this phenomenon. Yet direct neural evidence is still lacking. By manipulating the contrast of dichoptic testing gratings, here we measured the steady-state visually evoked potentials (SSVEPs) at the intermodulation frequencies to selectively track the activities of ocular-opponency-neurons before and after the "dichoptic-backward-movie" adaptation. One hour of adaptation caused a shift of perceptual and neural ocular dominance towards the unattended eye. More importantly, we found a decrease in the intermodulation SSVEP response after adaptation, which was significantly greater when high-contrast gratings were presented to the attended eye than when they were presented to the unattended eye. These results strongly support the view that the adaptation of ocular-opponency-neurons contributes to the ocular dominance plasticity induced by prolonged eye-based attention.

Negligible contribution of adaptation of ocular opponency neurons to the effect of short-term monocular deprivation

Introduction

Modeling work on binocular rivalry has described how ocular opponency neurons represent interocular conflict. These neurons have recently been considered to mediate an ocular dominance shift to the eye that has viewed a backward movie for long during which time the other eye is presented with a regular movie. Unlike typical short-term monocular deprivation, the visual inputs are comparable across eyes in that "dichoptic-backward-movie" paradigm. Therefore, it remains unclear whether the ocular opponency neurons are also responsible for the short-term monocular deprivation effect which is prevalently explained by the homeostatic compensation theory. We designed two experiments from distinct perspectives to investigate this question.

Methods

In Experiment 1, we mitigated the imbalance in the activity of opponency neurons between the two eyes during monocular deprivation by presenting video stimuli alternately. In Experiment 2, we directly evaluated the response of opponency neurons before and after monocular deprivation using SSVEP techniques.

Results

Consistent with each other, both experiments failed to provide reliable evidence supporting the involvement of ocular opponency neurons in the short-term monocular deprivation effect.

Discussion

Our results suggest that ocular opponency neurons may not play an essential role in the short-term monocular deprivation effect, potentially due to interference from the homeostatic plasticity mechanism.

Perceptual Learning Based on the Lateral Masking Paradigm in Anisometropic Amblyopia With or Without a Patching History

Purpose

Perceptual learning (PL) has shown promising performance in restoring visual function in adolescent amblyopes. We retrospectively compared the effect of a well-accepted PL paradigm on patients with anisometropic amblyopia with or without a patching therapy history (patching therapy [PT] group versus no patching therapy [NPT] group).

Methods

Eighteen PT and 13 NPT patients with anisometropic amblyopia underwent monocular PL for 3 months. During training, patients practiced a Gabor detection task following the lateral masking paradigm by applying a temporal two-alternative forced choice procedure with the amblyopic eye. Monocular contrast sensitivity functions (CSF), visual acuity, interocular differences in visual function metrics, and stereoacuity were compared before and after training.

Results

PL improved the visual acuity of the amblyopia eyes by 0.5 lines on average in the PT group and 1.5 lines in the NPT group. A significant reduction in the interocular difference in visual acuity was observed in the NPT group (P < 0.01) but not in the PT group (P = 0.05). Regarding CSF metrics, the area under the log CSF and cutoff in the amblyopic eyes of the NPT groups increased after training (P < 0.05). In addition, the interocular differences of the CSF metrics (P < 0.05) in the NPT group were significantly reduced. However, in the PT group, all the CSF metrics were unchanged after training. A total of 27 of 31 patients in both groups had no measurable stereopsis pretraining, and recovery after training was not significant.

Conclusions

PL based on a lateral masking training paradigm improved visual function in anisometropic amblyopia. Patients without a patching history achieved greater benefits.

Translational Relevance

PL based on a lateral masking training paradigm could be a new treatment for amblyopia.

Can children measure their own vision? A comparison of three new contrast sensitivity tests

PURPOSE

To investigate the feasibility of children measuring their own contrast sensitivity using a range of tablet- and paper-based tests.

METHODS

Forty children aged 5-15 years with amblyopia (N = 10), bilateral vision impairment (N = 10) or good vision (N = 20) measured their own vision on a screen-based optotype test (Manifold), a gamified vision test (PopCSF) and a paper-based test (Spotchecks) in a laboratory with minimal supervision. Completion rate, test-retest repeatability, test duration and participants' preferences were recorded for each test.

RESULTS

Most participants (36/40) were able to perform all three tests. All tests were correlated with clinically measured visual acuity and contrast sensitivity (p < 0.001). The 95% coefficient of repeatability was 0.30 dB for Manifold, 0.29 dB for PopCSF and 0.13 dB for Spotchecks. All tests differentiated between children with reduced contrast sensitivity and control participants. PopCSF and Spotchecks were also able to differentiate between children with amblyopia and those with good vision. Median test time was 152, 130 and 202 s for Manifold, PopCSF and Spotchecks, respectively. Twenty-two participants preferred the PopCSF test, 10 preferred Spotchecks and 6 preferred Manifold. Thirty-nine out of the 40 children (98%) said they would measure their own vision at home using at least one of these tests every month.

CONCLUSIONS

Children and young people can test their own contrast sensitivity with repeatable results. Of these three tests, the most repeatable was Spotchecks, the quickest was PopCSF and participants' favourite was PopCSF. Nearly all of the participants said they would be willing to use at least one of the three tests at home.

Reduced interocular suppression after inverse patching in anisometropic amblyopia

Purpose

Recent investigations observed substantial enhancements in binocular balance, visual acuity, and stereovision among older children and adults with amblyopia by patching the amblyopic eye (i.e., inverse patching) for 2 h daily over 2 months. Despite these promising findings, the precise neural mechanisms underlying inverse patching remain elusive. This study endeavors to delve deeper into the neural alterations induced by inverse patching, focusing on steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs). We specifically investigate the changes in SSVEPs following monocular deprivation of either the fellow eye or the amblyopic eye in older amblyopic children and adults.

Method

Ten participants (17.60 ± 2.03 years old; mean ± SEM), clinically diagnosed with anisometropic amblyopia, were recruited for this study. Each participant underwent a 120 min patching session on their fellow eye on the first day, followed by a similar session on their amblyopic eye on the second day. Baseline steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) measurements were collected each day prior to patching, with post-patching SSVEPs measurements obtained immediately after the patching session. The experimental design incorporated a binocular rivalry paradigm, utilizing SSVEPs measurements.

Results

The results revealed that inverse patching induced a heightened influence on neural plasticity, manifesting in a reduction of interocular suppression from the fellow eye to the amblyopic eye. In contrast, patching the fellow eye demonstrated negligible effects on the visual cortex. Furthermore, alterations in interocular suppression subsequent to inverse patching exhibited a correlation with the visual acuity of the amblyopic eye.

Conclusion

Inverse patching emerges as a promising therapeutic avenue for adolescents and adults grappling with severe anisometropic amblyopia that proves refractory to conventional interventions. This innovative approach exhibits the potential to induce more robust neural plasticity within the visual cortex, thereby modulating neural interactions more effectively than traditional amblyopia treatments.

Visual perceptual learning modulates microsaccade rate and directionality

Microsaccades, incessant "fixational eye movements" (< 1°), are an important window into cognitive functions. Yet, its role in visual perceptual learning (VPL)-improvements in visual discrimination due to practice-remains practically unexplored. Here we investigated whether and how microsaccades change in VPL. Human observers performed a Landolt acuity task for 5 consecutive days and were assigned to the Neutral or Attention group. On each trial, two peripheral Landolt squares were presented briefly along a diagonal. Observers reported the gap side of the target stimulus. Training improved acuity and modified the microsaccade rate; with training, the rate decreased during the fixation period but increased during the response cue. Furthermore, microsaccade direction during the response cue was biased toward the target location, and training enhanced and sped up this bias. Finally, the microsaccade rate during a task-free fixation period correlated with observers' initial acuity threshold, indicating that the fewer the microsaccades during fixation the better the individual visual acuity. All these results, which were similar for both the Neutral and Attention groups and at both trained and untrained locations, suggest that microsaccades could serve as a physiological marker reflecting functional dynamics in human perceptual learning.

EEG measurement for the effect of perceptual eye position and eye position training on comitant strabismus

One of the clinical features of comitant strabismus is that the deviation angles in the first and second eye positions are equal. However, there has been no report of consistency in the electroencephalography (EEG) signals between the 2 positions. In order to address this issue, we developed a new paradigm based on perceptual eye position. We collected steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) signals and resting-state EEG data before and after the eye position training. We found that SSVEP signals could characterize the suppression effect and eye position effect of comitant strabismus, that is, the SSVEP response of the dominant eye was stronger than that of the strabismus eye in the first eye position but not in the second eye position. Perceptual eye position training could modulate the frequency band activities in the occipital and surrounding areas. The changes in the visual function of comitant strabismus after training could also be characterized by SSVEP. There was a correlation between intermodulation frequency, power of parietal electrodes, and perceptual eye position, indicating that EEG might be a potential indicator for evaluating strabismus visual function.

Characteristics and predictive factors of visual function improvements after monocular perceptual learning in amblyopia

Monocular perceptual learning has shown promising performance in restoring visual function in amblyopes beyond the critical period in the laboratory. However, the treatment outcome is variable and indeterminate in actual clinical and neuroscientific practice. We aimed to explore the efficacy of monocular perceptual learning in the clinical setting. By combining continuous monitoring of perceptual learning and clinical measurements, we evaluated the efficacy and characteristics of visual acuity and contrast sensitivity function improvement and further explored the individualized effect after perceptual learning. Amblyopes (average age:17 ± 7 years old) were trained in a monocular two-alternative forced choice identification task at the 50% contrast threshold of the amblyopic eye for 10-15 days. We found that monocular perceptual learning improves both visual acuity and contrast sensitivity function in amblyopia. The broader activation of spatial contrast sensitivity, with a significant improvement in lower spatial frequencies, contributed to improving visual acuity. Visual acuity changes in the early stage can predict the endpoint treatment outcomes. Our results confirm the efficacy of monocular perceptual learning and suggest potential predictors of training outcomes to assist in the future management of clinical intervention and vision neuroscience research in amblyopia beyond the critical period of visual plasticity.

Perceptual learning based on a temporal stimulus enhances visual function in adult amblyopic subjects

Studies have shown that Perceptual Learning (PL) can lead to enhancement of spatial visual functions in amblyopic subjects. Here we aimed to determine whether a simple flickering stimulus can be utilized in PL to enhance temporal function performance and whether enhancement will transfer to spatial functions in amblyopic subjects. Six adult amblyopic and six normally sighted subjects underwent an evaluation of their performance of baseline psychophysics spatial functions (Visual acuity (VA), contrast sensitivity (CS), temporal functions (critical fusion frequency (CFF) test), as well as a static and flickering stereopsis test, and an electrophysiological evaluation (VEP). The subjects then underwent 5 training sessions (on average, a total of 150 min over 2.5 weeks), which included a task similar to the CFF test using the method of constant stimuli. After completing the training sessions, subjects repeated the initial performance evaluation tasks. All amblyopic subjects showed improved temporal visual performance (CFF) in the amblyopic eye (on average, 17%, p << 0.01) following temporal PL. Generalization to spatial, spatio-temporal, and binocular tasks was also found: VA increased by 0.12 logMAR (p = 0.004), CS in backward masking significantly increased (by up to 19%, p = 0.003), and flickering stereopsis increased by 85 arcsec (p = 0.048). These results were further electrophysiologically manifested by an increase in VEP amplitude (by 43%, p = 0.03), increased Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR) (by 39%, p = 0.024) to levels not different from normally sighted subjects, along with an improvement in inter-ocular delay (by 5.8 ms, p = 0.003). In contrast, no significant effect of training was found in the normally sighted group. These results highlight the potential of PL based on a temporal stimulus to improve the temporal and spatial visual performance in amblyopes. Future work is needed to optimize this method for clinical applications.

Effects of altered-reality training on interocular disinhibition in amblyopia

Training of viewing an altered-reality environment dichoptically has been found to reactivate human adult ocular dominance plasticity, allowing improvement of vision for amblyopia. One suspected mechanism for this training effect is ocular dominance rebalancing through interocular disinhibition. Here, we investigated whether the training modulated the neural responses reflecting interocular inhibition. Thirteen patients with amblyopia and 11 healthy controls participated in this study. Before and after six daily altered-reality training sessions, participants watched flickering video stimuli with their steady-state visually evoked potential (SSVEP) signals recorded simultaneously. We assessed the amplitude of SSVEP response at intermodulation frequencies, which was a potential neural indicator of interocular suppression. The results showed that training weakened the intermodulation response only in the amblyopic group, which was in agreement with the hypothesis that the training reduced interocular suppression specific to amblyopia. Moreover, even one month after the training ended, we could still observe this neural training effect. These findings provide preliminary neural evidence in support of the disinhibition account for treating amblyopia. We also explain these results with the ocular opponency model, which, to our knowledge, is the first time for this binocular rivalry model to be used in explaining long-term ocular dominance plasticity.

Visual Plasticity in Adulthood: Perspectives from Hebbian and Homeostatic Plasticity

The visual system retains profound plastic potential in adulthood. In the current review, we summarize the evidence of preserved plasticity in the adult visual system during visual perceptual learning as well as both monocular and binocular visual deprivation. In each condition, we discuss how such evidence reflects two major cellular mechanisms of plasticity: Hebbian and homeostatic processes. We focus on how these two mechanisms work together to shape plasticity in the visual system. In addition, we discuss how these two mechanisms could be further revealed in future studies investigating cross-modal plasticity in the visual system.

Current directions in visual perceptual learning

The visual expertise of adult humans is jointly determined by evolution, visual development, and visual perceptual learning. Perceptual learning refers to performance improvements in perceptual tasks after practice or training in the task. It occurs in almost all visual tasks, ranging from simple feature detection to complex scene analysis. In this Review, we focus on key behavioral aspects of visual perceptual learning. We begin by describing visual perceptual learning tasks and manipulations that influence the magnitude of learning, and then discuss specificity of learning. Next, we present theories and computational models of learning and specificity. We then review applications of visual perceptual learning in visual rehabilitation. Finally, we summarize the general principles of visual perceptual learning, discuss the tension between plasticity and stability, and conclude with new research directions.

Enhancement of visual perception by combining transcranial electrical stimulation and visual perceptual training

The visual system remains highly malleable even after its maturity or impairment. Our visual function can be enhanced through many ways, such as transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) and visual perceptual learning (VPL). TES can change visual function rapidly, but its modulation effect is short-lived and unstable. By contrast, VPL can lead to a substantial and long-lasting improvement in visual function, but extensive training is typically required. Theoretically, visual function could be further improved in a shorter time frame by combining tES and VPL than by solely using tES or VPL. Vision enhancement by combining these two methods concurrently is both theoretically and practically significant. In this review, we firstly introduced the basic concept and possible mechanisms of VPL and tES; then we reviewed the current research progress of visual enhancement using the combination of two methods in both general and clinical population; finally, we discussed the limitations and future directions in this field. Our review provides a guide for future research and application of vision enhancement and restoration by combining VPL and tES.

Exogenous attention generalizes location transfer of perceptual learning in adults with amblyopia

Visual perceptual learning (VPL) is a behavioral manifestation of brain neuroplasticity. However, its practical effectiveness is limited because improvements are often specific to the trained conditions and require significant time and effort. It is critical to understand the conditions that promote learning and transfer. Covert endogenous (voluntary) and exogenous (involuntary) spatial attention help overcome VPL location specificity in neurotypical adults, but whether they also do so for people with atypical visual development is unknown. This study investigates the role of exogenous attention during VPL in adults with amblyopia, an ideal population given their asymmetrically developed, but highly plastic, visual cortex. Here we show that training on a discrimination task leads to improvements in foveal contrast sensitivity, acuity, and stereoacuity. Notably, exogenous attention helps generalize learning beyond trained spatial locations. Future large-scale studies can verify the extent to which attention enhances the effectiveness of perceptual learning during rehabilitation of visual disorders.

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Contrast sensitivity (CS)-based VPL in amblyopes improves CS, acuity and stereoacuity

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Similar improvement in trained amblyopic eye and untrained fellow eye

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Exogenous spatial attention facilitates location transfer of VPL in amblyopic adults

An updated review about perceptual learning as a treatment for amblyopia

The purpose of our work is to do an update of recent investigations about amblyopia treatment based on perceptual learning, dichoptic training and videogames. Therefore, we conducted a search of the studies published about this subject in the last six years. The review shows that the investigations during that period have used several kinds of treatments regarding their design (e.g., type of stimulus and context used, duration of the training), and in a wider range of age that also include adults. Most of the studies have found an improvement in some mono and binocular visual functions, such as visual acuity, contrast sensitivity and stereopsis, which for now, it seems advisable that these processes could be used, as an alternative or a complement of the traditional passive therapy. Nevertheless, it would be plausible to conduct additional, controlled and random, clinical trials in order to discover in a more deeply way which perceptive learning method of treatment is more effective for the improvement of visual functions and for how long the effects of the treatment could persist.

Outcomes after Cataract Surgery in High Myopes with Axial Length Differences of ≥2 mm

Purpose: To evaluate the visual outcome after cataract operations in high myopia patients, whose axial length differences are longer than 2 mm.Methods: A retrospective study was conducted on patients who had received phacoemulsification cataract surgery from January 2014 to June 2020. The patients whose axial lengths and inter-eye axial lengths exceeded 26 and 2 mm, respectively, were selected. Demographic data, axial lengths, central subfield macular thickness, retinal nerve fiber layer, and best-corrected visual acuities (BCVAs) before and at 6 months postoperatively were collected. The factors related to visual outcome were analyzed using univariate, multivariate linear regression.Results: Twelve patients had an inter-eye axial length difference longer than 2 mm. The average axial lengths of longer and shorter eyes were 29.17 ± 1.94 and 26.66 ± 2.51 mm, respectively (p = 0.02, Mann-Whitney U-test). The BCVAs (logarithm of minimal angle of resolution, logMAR) of the longer and shorter eyes before the surgery were 1.09 ± 0.62 and 0.19 ± 0.16, respectively (p = 0.03, Mann-Whitney U-test). The BCVAs (logMAR) of the longer and shorter eyes 6 months after surgery were 0.19 ± 0.16 and 0.08 ± 0.10, respectively (p = 0.11, Mann-Whitney U-test). In univariate linear regression analysis, the BCVAs 6 months after the surgery showed better preoperative BCVAs (p < 0.001) and a thinner central subfield macular thickness (p = 0.001). In multivariate linear regression analysis, the BCVA at 6 months after the surgery showed significant improvement compared with preoperative BCVA values (p < 0.001).Conclusions: High myopia patients whose axial length differences exceeded 2 mm showed improved VA after cataract surgery.

Signaling pathways modulated by monocular enucleation in the superior colliculus of juvenile rats

Monocular eye enucleation (ME) is a classical paradigm to induce neural plasticity in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) axons from the intact eye, especially when performed within the critical period of visual system development. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the axonal sprouting and synaptogenesis seen in this model remain poorly understood. In the present work, we investigated the temporal alterations in phosphorylation of three kinases related to axonal growth and synaptogenesis-GSK3β (an important repressor of axonal outgrowth), AKT, and ERK-in superior colliculus of rats submitted to ME during early postnatal development. Western blotting analysis showed an increase in pGSK3β, the inactive form of this enzyme, 24 and 48 hr after ME. Accordingly, an increase in pERK levels was detected 24 hr after ME, indicating that phosphorylation of these enzymes might be related to axonal reorganization induced by ME. Interestingly, AKT phosphorylation was increased just 1 week after ME, suggesting it may be involved in the stabilization of newly formed synapses, rising from the axonal reorganization of remaining eye. A better understanding of how signaling pathways are modulated in a model of intense axonal sprouting can highlight possible therapeutic targets in RGCs injuries in adult individuals, where axonal regrowth is nearly absent.