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Higa GSV, Viana FJC, Francis-Oliveira J, Cruvinel E, Franchin TS, Marcourakis T, Ulrich H, De Pasquale R. Serotonergic neuromodulation of synaptic plasticity. Neuropharmacology 2024; 257:110036. [PMID: 38876308 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.110036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
Synaptic plasticity constitutes a fundamental process in the reorganization of neural networks that underlie memory, cognition, emotional responses, and behavioral planning. At the core of this phenomenon lie Hebbian mechanisms, wherein frequent synaptic stimulation induces long-term potentiation (LTP), while less activation leads to long-term depression (LTD). The synaptic reorganization of neuronal networks is regulated by serotonin (5-HT), a neuromodulator capable of modify synaptic plasticity to appropriately respond to mental and behavioral states, such as alertness, attention, concentration, motivation, and mood. Lately, understanding the serotonergic Neuromodulation of synaptic plasticity has become imperative for unraveling its impact on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functions. Through a comparative analysis across three main forebrain structures-the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex, this review discusses the actions of 5-HT on synaptic plasticity, offering insights into its role as a neuromodulator involved in emotional and cognitive functions. By distinguishing between plastic and metaplastic effects, we provide a comprehensive overview about the mechanisms of 5-HT neuromodulation of synaptic plasticity and associated functions across different brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Shigueto Vilar Higa
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Universidade de São Paulo, Butantã, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil; Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química (USP), Butantã, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Felipe José Costa Viana
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Universidade de São Paulo, Butantã, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - José Francis-Oliveira
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA
| | - Emily Cruvinel
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Universidade de São Paulo, Butantã, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Thainá Soares Franchin
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Universidade de São Paulo, Butantã, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Tania Marcourakis
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, Butantã, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química (USP), Butantã, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Roberto De Pasquale
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Universidade de São Paulo, Butantã, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil.
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Otsubo K, Sakashita N, Nishimoto Y, Sato Y, Tsutsui T, Kobayashi K, Suzuki K, Segi-Nishida E. Role of desmoplakin in supporting neuronal activity, neurogenic processes, and emotional-related behaviors in the dentate gyrus. Front Neurosci 2024; 18:1418058. [PMID: 39176381 PMCID: PMC11339875 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1418058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Desmoplakin (Dsp) is a component of desmosomal cell-cell junctions that interacts with the cadherin complex and cytoskeletal intermediate filaments. In addition to its function as an adhesion component, Dsp is involved in various biological processes, such as gene expression, differentiation, and migration. Dsp is specifically expressed in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) in the central nervous system. However, it is unclear how Dsp impacts hippocampal function and its related behaviors. Using an adeno-associated virus knockdown system in mice, we provide evidence that Dsp in the DG maintains hippocampal functions, including neuronal activity and adult neurogenesis, and contributes to anxiolytic-like effects. Dsp protein is mostly localized in mature granule cells in the adult DG. Dsp knockdown in the DG resulted in a lowered expression of an activity-dependent transcription factor FosB, and an increased expression of mature neuronal markers, such as calbindin. In addition, the suppression of Dsp decreases serotonin responsiveness at the DG output mossy fiber synapses and alters adult neurogenic processes in the subgranular zone of the DG. Moreover, DG-specific Dsp knockdown mice showed an increase in anxiety-like behaviors. Taken together, this research uncovers an unexplored function for Dsp in the central nervous system and suggests that Dsp in the DG may function as a regulator to maintain proper neuronal activation and adult neurogenesis, and contribute to the adaptation of emotion-related behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Otsubo
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoko Sakashita
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuki Nishimoto
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yo Sato
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takehisa Tsutsui
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Katsunori Kobayashi
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kanzo Suzuki
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Eri Segi-Nishida
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan
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Pecori A, Luppieri V, Santin A, Spedicati B, Zampieri S, Cadenaro M, Girotto G, Concas MP. Clenching the Strings of Bruxism Etiopathogenesis: Association Analyses on Genetics and Environmental Risk Factors in a Deeply Characterized Italian Cohort. Biomedicines 2024; 12:304. [PMID: 38397906 PMCID: PMC10887134 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12020304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Bruxism is a worldwide oral health problem. Although there is a consensus about its multifactorial nature, its precise etiopathogenetic mechanisms are unclear. This study, taking advantage of a deeply characterized cohort of 769 individuals (aged 6-89 years) coming from Northern Italy's genetically isolated populations, aims to epidemiologically describe environmental risk factors for bruxism development and identify genes potentially involved through a Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) approach. Logistic mixed models adjusted for age and sex were performed to evaluate associations between bruxism and possible risk factors, e.g., anxiety, smoking, and alcohol and caffeine intake. A case-control GWAS (135 cases, 523 controls), adjusted for age, sex, and anxiety, was conducted to identify new candidate genes. The GTEx data analysis was performed to evaluate the identified gene expression in human body tissues. Statistical analyses determined anxiety as a bruxism risk factor (OR = 2.54; 95% CI: 1.20-5.38; p-value = 0.015), and GWAS highlighted three novel genes potentially associated with bruxism: NLGN1 (topSNP = rs2046718; p-value = 2.63 × 10-7), RIMBP2 (topSNP = rs571497947; p-value = 4.68 × 10-7), and LHFP (topSNP = rs2324342; p-value = 7.47 × 10-6). The GTEx data analysis showed their expression in brain tissues. Overall, this work provided a deeper understanding of bruxism etiopathogenesis with the long-term perspective of developing personalized therapeutic approaches for improving affected individuals' quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Pecori
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”, Via dell’Istria 65, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (V.L.); (B.S.); (S.Z.); (M.C.); (G.G.); (M.P.C.)
| | - Valentina Luppieri
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”, Via dell’Istria 65, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (V.L.); (B.S.); (S.Z.); (M.C.); (G.G.); (M.P.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume, 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Aurora Santin
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume, 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Beatrice Spedicati
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”, Via dell’Istria 65, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (V.L.); (B.S.); (S.Z.); (M.C.); (G.G.); (M.P.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume, 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Stefania Zampieri
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”, Via dell’Istria 65, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (V.L.); (B.S.); (S.Z.); (M.C.); (G.G.); (M.P.C.)
| | - Milena Cadenaro
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”, Via dell’Istria 65, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (V.L.); (B.S.); (S.Z.); (M.C.); (G.G.); (M.P.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume, 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Giorgia Girotto
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”, Via dell’Istria 65, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (V.L.); (B.S.); (S.Z.); (M.C.); (G.G.); (M.P.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume, 447, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Maria Pina Concas
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”, Via dell’Istria 65, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (V.L.); (B.S.); (S.Z.); (M.C.); (G.G.); (M.P.C.)
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Segi-Nishida E, Suzuki K. Regulation of adult-born and mature neurons in stress response and antidepressant action in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Neurosci Res 2022:S0168-0102(22)00233-4. [PMID: 36030966 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2022.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus has been implicated in the regulation of stress responses, and in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression. This review discusses the cellular changes caused by chronic stress and the cellular role of the DG in stress-induced behavioral changes and its antidepressant-like effects. Regarding adult-born neurogenic processes in the DG, chronic stress, such as repeated social defeat, suppresses cell proliferation during and immediately after stress; however, this effect is transient. The subsequent differentiation and survival processes are differentially regulated depending on the timing and sensitivity of stress. The activation of young adult-born neurons during stress contributes to stress resilience, while the transient increase in the survival of adult-born neurons after the cessation of stress seems to promote stress susceptibility. In mature granule neurons, the predominant cells in the DG, synaptic plasticity is suppressed by chronic stress. However, a group of mature granule neurons is activated by chronic stress. Chronic antidepressant treatment can transform mature granule neurons to a phenotype resembling that of immature neurons, characterized as "dematuration". Adult-born neurons suppress the activation of mature granule neurons during stress, indicating that local neural interactions within the DG are important for the stress response. Elucidating the stress-associated context- and timing-dependent cellular changes and functions in the DG will provide insights into stress-related psychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Segi-Nishida
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, 6-3-1 Niijuku, Katsushika-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Kanzo Suzuki
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, 6-3-1 Niijuku, Katsushika-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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Noradrenaline activation of hippocampal dopamine D 1 receptors promotes antidepressant effects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2117903119. [PMID: 35939697 PMCID: PMC9388128 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2117903119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Dopamine D1 receptors (D1Rs) in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) are essential for antidepressant effects. However, the midbrain dopaminergic neurons, the major source of dopamine in the brain, only sparsely project to DG, suggesting possible activation of DG D1Rs by endogenous substances other than dopamine. We have examined this possibility using electrophysiological and biochemical techniques and found robust activation of D1Rs in mouse DG neurons by noradrenaline. Noradrenaline at the micromolar range potentiated synaptic transmission at the DG output and increased the phosphorylation of protein kinase A substrates in DG via activation of D1Rs and β adrenergic receptors. Neuronal excitation preferentially enhanced noradrenaline-induced synaptic potentiation mediated by D1Rs with minor effects on β-receptor-dependent potentiation. Increased voluntary exercise by wheel running also enhanced noradrenaline-induced, D1R-mediated synaptic potentiation, suggesting a distinct functional role of the noradrenaline-D1R signaling. We then examined the role of this signaling in antidepressant effects using mice exposed to chronic restraint stress. In the stressed mice, an antidepressant acting on the noradrenergic system induced a mature-to-immature change in the DG neuron phenotype, a previously proposed cellular substrate for antidepressant action. This effect was evident only in mice subjected to wheel running and blocked by a D1R antagonist. These results suggest a critical role of noradrenaline-induced activation of D1Rs in antidepressant effects in DG. Experience-dependent regulation of noradrenaline-D1R signaling may determine responsiveness to antidepressant drugs in depressive disorders.
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Katayama KI, Morimura N, Kobayashi K, Corbett D, Okamoto T, Ornthanalai VG, Matsunaga H, Fujita W, Matsumoto Y, Akagi T, Hashikawa T, Yamada K, Murphy NP, Nagao S, Aruga J. Slitrk2 deficiency causes hyperactivity with altered vestibular function and serotonergic dysregulation. iScience 2022; 25:104604. [PMID: 35789858 PMCID: PMC9250022 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
SLITRK2 encodes a transmembrane protein that modulates neurite outgrowth and synaptic activities and is implicated in bipolar disorder. Here, we addressed its physiological roles in mice. In the brain, the Slitrk2 protein was strongly detected in the hippocampus, vestibulocerebellum, and precerebellar nuclei—the vestibular-cerebellar-brainstem neural network including pontine gray and tegmental reticular nucleus. Slitrk2 knockout (KO) mice exhibited increased locomotor activity in novel environments, antidepressant-like behaviors, enhanced vestibular function, and increased plasticity at mossy fiber–CA3 synapses with reduced sensitivity to serotonin. A serotonin metabolite was increased in the hippocampus and amygdala, and serotonergic neurons in the raphe nuclei were decreased in Slitrk2 KO mice. When KO mice were treated with methylphenidate, lithium, or fluoxetine, the mood stabilizer lithium showed a genotype-dependent effect. Taken together, Slitrk2 deficiency causes aberrant neural network activity, synaptic integrity, vestibular function, and serotonergic function, providing molecular-neurophysiological insight into the brain dysregulation in bipolar disorders. Slitrk2 KO mice showed antidepressant-like behaviors and enhanced vestibular function Mossy fiber-CA3 synaptic sensitivity to serotonin was reduced in Slitrk2 KO mice Serotonin metabolite was increased in hippocampus and amygdala of Slitrk2 KO mice Numbers of serotonergic neurons in raphe nuclei were decreased in Slitrk2 KO mice
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Shahoha M, Cohen R, Ben-Simon Y, Ashery U. cAMP-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity at the Hippocampal Mossy Fiber Terminal. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2022; 14:861215. [PMID: 35444523 PMCID: PMC9013808 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2022.861215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a crucial second messenger involved in both pre- and postsynaptic plasticity in many neuronal types across species. In the hippocampal mossy fiber (MF) synapse, cAMP mediates presynaptic long-term potentiation and depression. The main cAMP-dependent signaling pathway linked to MF synaptic plasticity acts via the activation of the protein kinase A (PKA) molecular cascade. Accordingly, various downstream putative synaptic PKA target proteins have been linked to cAMP-dependent MF synaptic plasticity, such as synapsin, rabphilin, synaptotagmin-12, RIM1a, tomosyn, and P/Q-type calcium channels. Regulating the expression of some of these proteins alters synaptic release probability and calcium channel clustering, resulting in short- and long-term changes to synaptic efficacy. However, despite decades of research, the exact molecular mechanisms by which cAMP and PKA exert their influences in MF terminals remain largely unknown. Here, we review current knowledge of different cAMP catalysts and potential downstream PKA-dependent molecular cascades, in addition to non-canonical cAMP-dependent but PKA-independent cascades, which might serve as alternative, compensatory or competing pathways to the canonical PKA cascade. Since several other central synapses share a similar form of presynaptic plasticity with the MF, a better description of the molecular mechanisms governing MF plasticity could be key to understanding the relationship between the transcriptional and computational levels across brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meishar Shahoha
- Faculty of Life Sciences, School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ronni Cohen
- Faculty of Life Sciences, School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Yoav Ben-Simon
- Department of Neurophysiology, Vienna Medical University, Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Yoav Ben-Simon,
| | - Uri Ashery
- Faculty of Life Sciences, School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Uri Ashery,
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Tiger M, Gärde M, Tateno A, Matheson GJ, Sakayori T, Nogami T, Moriya H, Varnäs K, Arakawa R, Okubo Y. A positron emission tomography study of the serotonin1B receptor effect of electroconvulsive therapy for severe major depressive episodes. J Affect Disord 2021; 294:645-651. [PMID: 34332365 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective treatment for depressive disorders, although its molecular mechanism of action is unknown. The serotonin 1B (5-HT1B) receptor is a potential target for treatment of depression and low 5-HT1B receptor binding in limbic regions has been reported in previous positron emission tomography (PET) studies of depression. METHODS The objective of this longitudinal PET study was to examine the effect of ECT for depression on 5-HT1B receptor binding. Fifteen hospitalized patients with major depressive episodes were examined with PET and the 5-HT1B receptor selective radioligand [11C]AZ10419369, before and after ECT. Fifteen controls matched for age and sex were examined. Limbic regions with previously reported low 5-HT1B receptor binding in depression and a dorsal brain stem region were selected. RESULTS Thirteen patients completed the study according to protocol. Eleven out of thirteen patients responded to ECT. 5-HT1B receptor binding in hippocampus increased with 30 % after ECT (p=0.021). Using linear mixed effects modelling, we observed increases in 5-HT1B receptor binding following ECT with a moderate to large effect size, which did not differ significantly between regions. In an exploratory analysis, strong correlations between changes in 5-HT1B receptor binding and agitation scores on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale after ECT were observed. LIMITATIONS Albeit representative of a PET study, the sample size is still small and there are potential confounding effects of medication. CONCLUSIONS Increased 5-HT1B receptor binding was observed following ECT for depression, corresponding to previous findings of increased 5-HT1B receptor binding in hippocampus after rapid acting ketamine for treatment resistant depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikael Tiger
- Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Sweden.; Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Martin Gärde
- Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Amane Tateno
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Granville J Matheson
- Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Takeshi Sakayori
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Nogami
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroki Moriya
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Katarina Varnäs
- Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ryosuke Arakawa
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshiro Okubo
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
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