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Bazzari FH, Bazzari AH. BACE1 Inhibitors for Alzheimer's Disease: The Past, Present and Any Future? MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27248823. [PMID: 36557955 PMCID: PMC9785888 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27248823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia in the elderly. The complexity of AD has hindered the development of either a cure or a disease-modifying therapy to halt the disease progression. Numerous hypotheses were presented in order to explain the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of AD. Introduced in 1992, the "Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis" had a huge impact on the field and inspired the rise of various drug candidates, especially amyloid-beta (Aβ)-directed drugs; including beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) inhibitors. Adopted by a number of pharmaceutical companies, the development of BACE1 inhibitors has gained momentum in the past decade with promising results from experimental and early clinical-phase studies. Nevertheless, nearly all BACE1 inhibitors failed in later phases of clinical trials, due to safety and/or efficacy issues, and others were discontinued early in favor of second-generation small-molecule candidates. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of all BACE1 inhibitors to ever reach clinical trials, and we discuss the challenges and different perspectives on whether BACE1 inhibitors are to be reconsidered or revitalized in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firas H. Bazzari
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Jerash University, Al-Urdon St., Jerash 26150, Jordan
- Correspondence:
| | - Amjad H. Bazzari
- Department of Basic Scientific Sciences, Faculty of Arts & Sciences, Applied Science Private University, Amman 11931, Jordan
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Arif N, Subhani A, Hussain W, Rasool N. In Silico Inhibition of BACE-1 by Selective Phytochemicals as Novel Potential Inhibitors: Molecular Docking and DFT Studies. Curr Drug Discov Technol 2021; 17:397-411. [PMID: 30767744 DOI: 10.2174/1570163816666190214161825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's Disease (AD) has become the most common age-dependent disease of dementia. The trademark pathologies of AD are the presence of amyloid aggregates in neurofibrils. Recently phytochemicals being considered as potential inhibitors against various neurodegenerative, antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral diseases in human beings. OBJECTIVE This study targets the inhibition of BACE-1 by phytochemicals using in silico drug discovery analysis. METHODS A total of 3150 phytochemicals were collected from almost 25 different plants through literature assessment. The ADMET studies, molecular docking and density functional theory (DFT) based analysis were performed to analyze the potential inhibitory properties of these phytochemicals. RESULTS The ADMET and docking results exposed seven compounds that have high potential as an inhibitory agent against BACE-1 and show binding affinity >8.0 kcal/mol against BACE-1. They show binding affinity greater than those of various previously reported inhibitors of BACE-1. Furthermore, DFT based analysis has shown high reactivity for these seven phytochemicals in the binding pocket of BACE- 1, based on ELUMO, EHOMO and Kohn-Sham energy gap. All seven phytochemicals were testified (as compared to experimental ones) as novel inhibitors against BACE-1. CONCLUSION Out of seven phytochemicals, four were obtained from plant Glycyrrhiza glabra i.e. Shinflavanone, Glabrolide, Glabrol and PrenyllicoflavoneA, one from Huperzia serrate i.e. Macleanine, one from Uncaria rhynchophylla i.e. 3a-dihydro-cadambine and another one was from VolvalerelactoneB from plant Valeriana-officinalis. It is concluded that these phytochemicals are suitable candidates for drug/inhibitor against BACE-1, and can be administered to humans after experimental validation through in vitro and in vivo trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Arif
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore 54770, Pakistan
| | - Andleeb Subhani
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore 54770, Pakistan
| | - Waqar Hussain
- National Center of Artificial Intelligence, Punjab University College of Information Technology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan,Center for Professional Studies, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Nouman Rasool
- Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological
Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan,Center for Professional Studies, Lahore, Pakistan
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Janssens J, Hermans B, Vandermeeren M, Barale-Thomas E, Borgers M, Willems R, Meulders G, Wintmolders C, Van den Bulck D, Bottelbergs A, Ver Donck L, Larsen P, Moechars D, Edwards W, Mercken M, Van Broeck B. Passive immunotherapy with a novel antibody against 3pE-modified Aβ demonstrates potential for enhanced efficacy and favorable safety in combination with BACE inhibitor treatment in plaque-depositing mice. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 154:105365. [PMID: 33848635 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The imbalance between production and clearance of amyloid β (Aβ) peptides and their resulting accumulation in the brain is an early and crucial step in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, Aβ is strongly positioned as a promising and extensively validated therapeutic target for AD. Investigational disease-modifying approaches aiming at reducing cerebral Aβ concentrations include prevention of de novo production of Aβ through inhibition of β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), and clearance of Aβ deposits via passive Aβ immunotherapy. We have developed a novel, high affinity antibody against Aβ peptides bearing a pyroglutamate residue at amino acid position 3 (3pE), an Aβ species abundantly present in plaque deposits in AD brains. Here, we describe the preclinical characterization of this antibody, and demonstrate a significant reduction in amyloid burden in the absence of microhemorrhages in different mouse models with established plaque deposition. Moreover, we combined antibody treatment with chronic BACE1 inhibitor treatment and demonstrate significant clearance of pre-existing amyloid deposits in transgenic mouse brain, without induction of microhemorrhages and other histopathological findings. Together, these data confirm significant potential for the 3pE-specific antibody to be developed as a passive immunotherapy approach that balances efficacy and safety. Moreover, our studies suggest further enhanced treatment efficacy and favorable safety after combination of the 3pE-specific antibody with BACE1 inhibitor treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Janssens
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Bart Hermans
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Marc Vandermeeren
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Erio Barale-Thomas
- Non-Clinical Science, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Marianne Borgers
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Roland Willems
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Greet Meulders
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Cindy Wintmolders
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Dries Van den Bulck
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Astrid Bottelbergs
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Luc Ver Donck
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Peter Larsen
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Dieder Moechars
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | | | - Marc Mercken
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Bianca Van Broeck
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Research & Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium.
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Gupta SP, Patil VM. Recent Studies on Design and Development of Drugs Against Alzheimer's Disease (AD) Based on Inhibition of BACE-1 and Other AD-causative Agents. Curr Top Med Chem 2020; 20:1195-1213. [PMID: 32297584 DOI: 10.2174/1568026620666200416091623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the neurodegenerative diseases and has been hypothesized to be a protein misfolding disease. In the generation of AD, β-secretase, γ-secretase, and tau protein play an important role. A literature search reflects ever increasing interest in the design and development of anti-AD drugs targeting β-secretase, γ-secretase, and tau protein. OBJECTIVE The objective is to explore the structural aspects and role of β-secretase, γ-secretase, and tau protein in AD and the efforts made to exploit them for the design of effective anti-AD drugs. METHODS The manuscript covers the recent studies on design and development of anti-AD drugs exploiting amyloid and cholinergic hypotheses. RESULTS Based on amyloid and cholinergic hypotheses, effective anti-AD drugs have been searched out in which non-peptidic BACE1 inhibitors have been most prominent. CONCLUSION Further exploitation of the structural aspects and the inhibition mechanism for β-secretase, γ-secretase, and tau protein and the use of cholinergic hypothesis may lead still more potent anti-AD drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satya P Gupta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Meerut Institute of Engineering and Technology, Meerut-250005, India
| | - Vaishali M Patil
- Computer Aided Drug Design Lab, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, KIET School of Pharmacy, KIET Group of Institutions, Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad-201206, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Liu Z, Zhang A, Sun H, Han Y, Kong L, Wang X. Two decades of new drug discovery and development for Alzheimer's disease. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra26737h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is a progressive and irreversible neurodegenerative disease, associated with a decreased cognitive function and severe behavioral abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhidong Liu
- National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry
- Sino-US Chinmedomics Technology Cooperation Center
- Chinmedomics Research Center of TCM State Administration
- Laboratory of Metabolomics
- Key Pharmacometabolomics Platform of Chinese Medicines
| | - Aihua Zhang
- National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry
- Sino-US Chinmedomics Technology Cooperation Center
- Chinmedomics Research Center of TCM State Administration
- Laboratory of Metabolomics
- Key Pharmacometabolomics Platform of Chinese Medicines
| | - Hui Sun
- National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry
- Sino-US Chinmedomics Technology Cooperation Center
- Chinmedomics Research Center of TCM State Administration
- Laboratory of Metabolomics
- Key Pharmacometabolomics Platform of Chinese Medicines
| | - Ying Han
- National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry
- Sino-US Chinmedomics Technology Cooperation Center
- Chinmedomics Research Center of TCM State Administration
- Laboratory of Metabolomics
- Key Pharmacometabolomics Platform of Chinese Medicines
| | - Ling Kong
- National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry
- Sino-US Chinmedomics Technology Cooperation Center
- Chinmedomics Research Center of TCM State Administration
- Laboratory of Metabolomics
- Key Pharmacometabolomics Platform of Chinese Medicines
| | - Xijun Wang
- National TCM Key Laboratory of Serum Pharmacochemistry
- Sino-US Chinmedomics Technology Cooperation Center
- Chinmedomics Research Center of TCM State Administration
- Laboratory of Metabolomics
- Key Pharmacometabolomics Platform of Chinese Medicines
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Timmers M, Van Broeck B, Ramael S, Slemmon J, De Waepenaert K, Russu A, Bogert J, Stieltjes H, Shaw LM, Engelborghs S, Moechars D, Mercken M, Liu E, Sinha V, Kemp J, Van Nueten L, Tritsmans L, Streffer JR. Profiling the dynamics of CSF and plasma Aβ reduction after treatment with JNJ-54861911, a potent oral BACE inhibitor. ALZHEIMERS & DEMENTIA-TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH & CLINICAL INTERVENTIONS 2016; 2:202-212. [PMID: 29067308 PMCID: PMC5651349 DOI: 10.1016/j.trci.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of a novel β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) inhibitor, JNJ-54861911, were assessed after single and multiple dosing in healthy participants. METHODS Two randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind studies were performed using single and multiple ascending JNJ-54861911 doses (up to 14 days) in young and elderly healthy participants. Regular blood samples and frequent CSF samples, up to 36 hours after last dose, were collected to assess the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (Aβ, sAPPα,β,total levels) profiles of JNJ-54861911. RESULTS JNJ-54861911 was well-tolerated, adverse events were uncommon and unrelated to JNJ-54861911. JNJ-54861911 showed dose-proportional CSF and plasma pharmacokinetic profiles. Plasma- and CSF-Aβ and CSF-sAPPβ were reduced in a dose-dependent manner. Aβ reductions (up to 95%) outlasted exposure to JNJ-54861911. APOE ε4 carrier status and baseline Aβ levels did not influence Aβ/sAPPβ reductions. CONCLUSION JNJ-54861911, a potent brain-penetrant BACE1 inhibitor, achieved high and stable Aβ reductions after single and multiple dosing in healthy participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Timmers
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium.,Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Bianca Van Broeck
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | | | - John Slemmon
- Janssen Research and Development LLC, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Katja De Waepenaert
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | - Alberto Russu
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | | | - Hans Stieltjes
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | - Leslie M Shaw
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Sebastiaan Engelborghs
- Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Neurology and Memory Clinic, Hospital Network Antwerp (ZNA) Middelheim and Hoge Beuken, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Dieder Moechars
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | - Marc Mercken
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | - Enchi Liu
- Janssen Research and Development LLC, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Vikash Sinha
- Janssen Research and Development LLC, Titusville, NJ, USA
| | - John Kemp
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | - Luc Van Nueten
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | - Luc Tritsmans
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium
| | - Johannes Rolf Streffer
- Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Beerse, Belgium.,Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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7
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Advances in recent patent and clinical trial drug development for Alzheimer's disease. Pharm Pat Anal 2016; 3:429-47. [PMID: 25291315 DOI: 10.4155/ppa.14.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, involving a large number of genes, proteins and their complex interactions. Currently, no effective therapeutic agents are available to either stop or reverse the progression of this disease, likely due to its polygenic nature. The complicated pathophysiology of AD remains unresolved. Although it has been hypothesized that the amyloid β cascade and the hyper-phosphorylated tau protein may be primarily involved, other mechanisms, such as oxidative stress, deficiency of central cholinergic neurotransmitter, mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation have also been implicated. The main focus of this review is to document current therapeutic agents in clinical trials and patented candidate compounds under development based on their main mechanisms of action. It also discusses the relationship between the recent understanding of key targets and the development of potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of AD.
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Ghosh AK, Tang J. Prospects of β-Secretase Inhibitors for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease. ChemMedChem 2015; 10:1463-6. [PMID: 26140607 PMCID: PMC6029879 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201500216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
β-Secretase continues to be an attractive drug discovery target for the therapeutic intervention of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This enzyme plays a critical role in the production of neurotoxic β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides in the brain. Over the years, extensive research efforts have led to the development of many promising classes of inhibitors against this protease. Many small-molecule, peptidomimetic, and nonpeptide β-secretase inhibitors have now overcome the key challenging development hurdles such as selectivity and brain penetration. A number of inhibitors have also shown further promise in reducing brain Aβ and rescuing cognitive decline in animal models. Recently, several β-secretase inhibitors have entered into preclinical and phase I studies, and at least one of these inhibitors has advanced to phase II/III human trials. The outlook on β-secretase inhibitor drugs for the treatment of AD patients is discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun K Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 (USA).
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 (USA).
| | - Jordan Tang
- Protein Studies Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 (USA)
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Abstract
β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is the β-secretase enzyme required for the production of the neurotoxic β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide that is widely considered to have a crucial early role in the etiology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). As a result, BACE1 has emerged as a prime drug target for reducing the levels of Aβ in the AD brain, and the development of BACE1 inhibitors as therapeutic agents is being vigorously pursued. It has proven difficult for the pharmaceutical industry to design BACE1 inhibitor drugs that pass the blood–brain barrier, however this challenge has recently been met and BACE1 inhibitors are now in human clinical trials to test for safety and efficacy in AD patients and individuals with pre-symptomatic AD. Initial results suggest that some of these BACE1 inhibitor drugs are well tolerated, although others have dropped out because of toxicity and it is still too early to know whether any will be effective for the prevention or treatment of AD. Additionally, based on newly identified BACE1 substrates and phenotypes of mice that lack BACE1, concerns have emerged about potential mechanism-based side effects of BACE1 inhibitor drugs with chronic administration. It is hoped that a therapeutic window can be achieved that balances safety and efficacy. This review summarizes the current state of progress in the development of BACE1 inhibitor drugs and the evaluation of their therapeutic potential for AD.
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Abstract
Current treatment options for Alzheimer's disease (AD) are limited to medications that reduce dementia symptoms. Given the rapidly ageing populations in most areas of the world, new therapeutic interventions for AD are urgently needed. In recent years, a number of drug candidates targeting the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide have advanced into clinical trials; however, most have failed because of safety issues or lack of efficacy. The Aß peptide is central to the pathogenesis, and immunotherapy against Aß has attracted considerable interest. It offers the possibility to reach the target with highly specific drugs. Active immunization and passive immunization have been the most widely studied approaches to immunotherapy of AD. A favourable aspect of active immunization is the capacity for a small number of vaccinations to generate a prolonged antibody response. A potential disadvantage is the variability in the antibody response across patients. The potential advantages of passive immunotherapy include the reproducible delivery of a known amount of therapeutic antibodies to the patient and rapid clearance of those antibodies if side effects develop. A disadvantage is the requirement for repeated infusions of antibodies over time. After more than a decade of research, anti-amyloid immunotherapy remains one of the most promising emerging strategies for developing disease-modifying treatments for AD. In this review, we examine the presently ongoing Aß-directed immunotherapies that have passed clinical development Phase IIa.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lannfelt
- Department of Public Health/Geriatrics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Abstract
The β secretase, widely known as β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), initiates the production of the toxic amyloid β (Aβ) that plays a crucial early part in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. BACE1 is a prime therapeutic target for lowering cerebral Aβ concentrations in Alzheimer's disease, and clinical development of BACE1 inhibitors is being intensely pursued. Although BACE1 inhibitor drug development has proven challenging, several promising BACE1 inhibitors have recently entered human clinical trials. The safety and efficacy of these drugs are being tested at present in healthy individuals and patients with Alzheimer's disease, and will soon be tested in individuals with presymptomatic Alzheimer's disease. Although hopes are high that BACE1 inhibitors might be efficacious for the prevention or treatment of Alzheimer's disease, concerns have been raised about potential mechanism-based side-effects of these drugs. The potential of therapeutic BACE1 inhibition might prove to be a watershed in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riqiang Yan
- Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Robert Vassar
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, The Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Chiang
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093; ,
| | - Edward H. Koo
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093; ,
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