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Moche H, Karlsson H, Västfjäll D. Victim identifiability, number of victims, and unit asking in charitable giving. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0300863. [PMID: 38547164 PMCID: PMC10977801 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0300863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
This study examines the identifiable victim effect (being more willing to help an identified victim than an unidentified), the singularity effect (i.e., being more willing to help a single identified victim than a group of identified victims), and unit asking (first asking donors for their willingness to donate for one unit and then asking for donations for multiple units) in charitable giving. In five studies (N = 7996), we vary the level of identifiability, singularity, and group size. We find that unit asking is making people more sensitive to the number of people in need. Further, while the level of identifiability influences affective reactions, this effect does not extend to donations and, thus, is not affected by unit asking. We do, however, find an "emotion asking effect" where asking donors to rate their affect before donating increase donation levels (compared to donors asked to rate affect after). Emotion asking was attenuated when combined with unit asking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajdi Moche
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- JEDI-Lab, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Hulda Karlsson
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- JEDI-Lab, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Daniel Västfjäll
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- JEDI-Lab, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Decision Research, Eugene, OR, United States of America
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2
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Hagman W, Tinghög G, Dickert S, Slovic P, Västfjäll D. Motivated Down-Regulation of Emotion and Compassion Collapse Revisited. Front Psychol 2022; 13:801150. [PMID: 35911053 PMCID: PMC9326354 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.801150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Compassion collapse is a phenomenon where feelings and helping behavior decrease as the number of needy increases. But what are the underlying mechanisms for compassion collapse? Previous research has attempted to pit two explanations: Limitations of the feeling system vs. motivated down-regulation of emotion, against each other. In this article, we critically reexamine a previous study comparing these two accounts published in 2011 and present new data that contest motivated down-regulation of emotion as the primary explanation for compassion collapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Hagman
- JEDILab, Division of Economics, Department of Management and Engineering, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- JEDILab, Division of Psychology, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Division for Human-Centered Systems (HCS) at the Department of Computer and Information Science, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Gustav Tinghög
- JEDILab, Division of Economics, Department of Management and Engineering, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- JEDILab, Division of Psychology, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Medical and Health Sciences, The National Center for Priority Setting in Health Care, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Stephan Dickert
- Department of Psychology, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, Austria
- School of Business and Management, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Slovic
- Decision Research, Eugene, OR, United States
| | - Daniel Västfjäll
- JEDILab, Division of Economics, Department of Management and Engineering, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- JEDILab, Division of Psychology, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Decision Research, Eugene, OR, United States
- *Correspondence: Daniel Västfjäll,
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Khalid AS, Dickert S. Empathy at the Gates: Reassessing Its Role in Moral Decision Making. Front Psychol 2022; 13:800752. [PMID: 35153955 PMCID: PMC8828573 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.800752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Afreen S Khalid
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, Austria
| | - Stephan Dickert
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, Austria.,Department of Marketing, School of Business and Management, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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4
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Thinking, good and bad? Deliberative thinking and the singularity effect
in charitable giving. JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 2022. [DOI: 10.1017/s1930297500009001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Can deliberation increase charitable giving when giving is impulsive
(i.e., a one-time small gift in response to an immediate appeal)? We conduct
two studies in Israel and Sweden to compare two forms of deliberation,
unguided and guided, in their ability to decrease the singularity effect
(i.e., giving more to one than many victims), often evident in impulsive
giving. Under unguided deliberation, participants were instructed to simply
think hard before making a donation decision whereas participants in the
guided deliberation condition were asked to think how much different
prespecified decision attributes should influence their decision. We find
that both types of deliberation reduce the singularity effect, as people no
longer value the single victim higher than the group of victims.
Importantly, this is driven by donations being decreased under deliberation
only to the single victim, but not the group of victims. Thus, deliberation
affects donations negatively by overshadowing the affective response,
especially in situations in which affect is greatest (i.e., to a single
victim). Last, the results show that neither type of deliberation
significantly reversed the singularity effect, as people did not help the
group significantly more than the single victim. This means that deliberate
thinking decreased the overall willingness to help, leading to a lower
overall valuation of people in need.
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Harel I, Kogut T. The Effect of the Number and Identification of Recipients on Organ-Donation Decisions. Front Psychol 2021; 12:794422. [PMID: 34975694 PMCID: PMC8716457 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.794422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined how presentations of organ donation cases in the media may affect people’s decisions about organ donation issues. Specifically, we focused on the combined effect of the information about the number of recipients saved by the organs of one deceased person (one vs. four) and the identifiability of the donor and the recipient(s) in organ donation descriptions, on people’s willingness to donate the organs of a deceased relative. Results suggest that reading about more people who were saved by the organs of a deceased donor does not increase willingness to donate. Replicating earlier research, we found that reading about a case of organ donation involving an identified deceased donor, deceased willingness to donate. However, this effect was attenuated when participants read about more recipients who were saved by the donation. Importantly, the presentation that prompted the greatest willingness to donate a deceased relative’s organs was the one that featured an unidentified donor and only one identified recipient. Finally, an explorative investigation into participants’ subconscious thoughts of death following the organ donation story revealed that identifying a deceased organ donor prompts more thoughts of death in the perceiver (regardless of the number of recipients).
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Jaeger B, van Vugt M. Psychological barriers to effective altruism: An evolutionary perspective. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 44:130-134. [PMID: 34628365 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
People usually engage in (or at least profess to engage in) altruistic acts to benefit others. Yet, they routinely fail to maximize how much good is achieved with their donated money and time. An accumulating body of research has uncovered various psychological factors that can explain why people's altruism tends to be ineffective. These prior studies have mostly focused on proximate explanations (e.g. emotions, preferences, lay beliefs). Here, we adopt an evolutionary perspective and highlight how three fundamental motives - parochialism, status, and conformity - can explain many seemingly disparate failures to do good effectively. Our approach outlines ultimate explanations for ineffective altruism, and we illustrate how fundamental motives can be leveraged to promote more effective giving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastian Jaeger
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Mark van Vugt
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Caviola L, Schubert S, Greene JD. The Psychology of (In)Effective Altruism. Trends Cogn Sci 2021; 25:596-607. [PMID: 33962844 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The most effective charities are hundreds of times more effective than typical charities, yet few donors prioritize effectiveness. Why is that? How might we increase the effectiveness of charitable giving? We review the motivational and epistemic causes of (in)effective giving. Many donors view charitable giving as a matter of personal preference, which favors decisions based on emotional appeal rather than effectiveness. In addition, while many donors are motivated to give effectively, they often have misconceptions and cognitive biases that reduce effective giving. Nearly all research on charitable giving interventions focuses on increasing donation amounts. However, to increase societal benefit, donation effectiveness is likely to be more important. This underscores the need for research on strategies to encourage effective giving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucius Caviola
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Stefan Schubert
- Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Joshua D Greene
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA; Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Barneron M, Choshen-Hillel S, Yaniv I. Reaping a benefit at the expense of multiple others: How are the losses of others counted? ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2021.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Ryazanov AA, Wang ST, Rickless SC, McKenzie CRM, Nelkin DK. Sensitivity to shifts in probability of harm and benefit in moral dilemmas. Cognition 2021; 209:104548. [PMID: 33640684 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Psychologists and philosophers who pose moral dilemmas to understand moral judgment typically specify outcomes as certain to occur in them. This contrasts with real-life moral decision-making, which is almost always infused with probabilities (e.g., the probability of a given outcome if an action is or is not taken). Seven studies examine sensitivity to the size and location of shifts in probabilities of outcomes that would result from action in moral dilemmas. We find that moral judgments differ between actions that result in an equal increase in probability of harm (equal size), but have different end-states (e.g., an increase in harm probability from 25% to 50% or from 50% to 75%). This deviation from expected value is robust under separate evaluation, and increases when the comparison between shifts is made explicit under simultaneous evaluation. Consistent with the centrality of perceived harm in some models of moral judgment, perceived harm partially mediates sensitivity to location of harm probability shift. Unlike for shifts in harm probabilities, participants are insensitive to the location of shifts in probability of beneficial outcomes. They are also insensitive to the location of shifts in probability of analogous monetary losses and gains, suggesting an asymmetry between harm and benefit in moral reasoning, as well as an asymmetry between moral and monetary decision-making more broadly. Implications for normative philosophical theory and moral psychological theory, as well as practical applications, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arseny A Ryazanov
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, United States.
| | - Shawn Tinghao Wang
- Department of Philosophy, University of California, San Diego, United States
| | - Samuel C Rickless
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, United States
| | - Craig R M McKenzie
- Rady School of Management, University of California, San Diego, United States
| | - Dana Kay Nelkin
- Department of Philosophy, University of California, San Diego, United States
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Garinther A, Arrow H, Razavi P. Victim Number Effects in Charitable Giving: Joint Evaluations Promote Egalitarian Decisions. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2021; 48:34-48. [PMID: 33514284 DOI: 10.1177/0146167220982734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Studies of victim number effects in charitable giving consistently find that people care more and help more when presented with an appeal to help an individual compared with an appeal to help multiple people in need. Across three online experiments (N = 1,348), Bayesian estimation revealed the opposite pattern when people responded to multiple appeals to help targets of different sizes (1, 2, 5, 7, and 12). In this joint evaluation context, participants donated more to larger groups, when appeals were presented in both ascending order (Study 1) and random order (Study 2). The pattern held whether or not participants saw an overview of all appeals at the start of the study and when a single individual was added to the array (Study 3). These results clarify how compassion fade findings typical of separate evaluations may not generalize to contexts in which people encounter multiple appeals within a short temporal window.
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Erlandsson A, Wingren M, Andersson PA. Type and amount of help as predictors for impression of helpers. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0243808. [PMID: 33306708 PMCID: PMC7732071 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Impression of helpers can vary as a function of the magnitude of helping (amount of help) and of situational and motivational aspects (type of help). Over three studies conducted in Sweden and the US, we manipulated both the amount and the type of help in ten diverse vignettes and measured participants' impressions of the described helpers. Impressions were almost unaffected when increasing the amount of help by 500%, but clearly affected by several type of help-manipulations. Particularly, helpers were less positively evaluated if they had mixed motives for helping, did not experience intense emotions or empathy, or if helping involved no personal sacrifice. In line with the person-centered theory of moral judgment, people seem to form impressions of helpers primarily based on the presumed underlying processes and motives of prosociality rather than its consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvid Erlandsson
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Mattias Wingren
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Per A. Andersson
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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Unit Asking — a method for increasing donations: A replication and extension. JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 2020. [DOI: 10.1017/s1930297500008184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractWe replicate and extend unit asking – a method to increase donations by first asking donors for their willingness to donate for one unit and then asking for donations for multiple units (Hsee, Zhang & Xu, 2013) We conducted a large scale replication and extension using a 2 (unit asking, control) × 3 (domains; children (original), animals, environment) between-subjects design. Across three domains, we find that unit asking increased donations, suggesting that this method can be used to increase giving to different charitable causes.
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Moral preferences in helping dilemmas expressed by matching and forced choice. JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 2020. [DOI: 10.1017/s1930297500007427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThis paper asks whether moral preferences in eight medical dilemmas change as a function of how preferences are expressed, and how people choose when they are faced with two equally attractive help projects. In two large-scale studies, participants first read dilemmas where they “matched” two suggested helping projects (which varied on a single attribute) so that they became equally attractive. They did this by filling in a missing number (e.g., how many male patients must Project M save in order to be equally attractive as Project F which can save 100 female patients). Later, the same participants were asked to choose between the two equally attractive projects. We found robust evidence that people do not choose randomly, but instead tend to choose projects that help female (vs. male), children (vs. adult), innocent (vs. non-innocent), ingroup (vs. outgroup) and existing (vs. future) patients, and imply no (vs. some) risk of a harmful side-effect, even when these projects have been matched as equally attractive as, and save fewer patients than the contrasting project. We also found that some moral preferences are hidden when expressed with matching but apparent when expressed with forced choice. For example, 88–95% of the participants expressed that female and male patients are equally valuable when doing the matching task, but over 80% of them helped female patients in the choice task.
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Donors vastly underestimate differences in charities’ effectiveness. JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 2020. [DOI: 10.1017/s1930297500007452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractSome charities are much more cost-effective than other charities, which means that they can save many more lives with the same amount of money. Yet most donations do not go to the most effective charities. Why is that? We hypothesized that part of the reason is that people underestimate how much more effective the most effective charities are compared with the average charity. Thus, they do not know how much more good they could do if they donated to the most effective charities. We studied this hypothesis using samples of the general population, students, experts, and effective altruists in five studies. We found that lay people estimated that among charities helping the global poor, the most effective charities are 1.5 times more effective than the average charity (Studies 1 and 2). Effective altruists, in contrast, estimated the difference to be factor 50 (Study 3) and experts estimated the factor to be 100 (Study 4). We found that participants donated more to the most effective charity, and less to an average charity, when informed about the large difference in cost-effectiveness (Study 5). In conclusion, misconceptions about the difference in effectiveness between charities is thus likely one reason, among many, why people donate ineffectively.
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Rubaltelli E, Hysenbelli D, Dickert S, Mayorga M, Slovic P. Asymmetric cost and benefit perceptions in willingness‐to‐donate decisions. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Rubaltelli
- Department of Developmental and Socialization PsychologyUniversity of Padova Padova Italy
| | - Dorina Hysenbelli
- Department of Developmental and Socialization PsychologyUniversity of Padova Padova Italy
| | - Stephan Dickert
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Klagenfurt Klagenfurt Austria
- School of Business and ManagementQueen Mary University of London London UK
| | | | - Paul Slovic
- Decision Research Eugene OR USA
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Oregon Eugene OR USA
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Marewski JN, Hoffrage U, Fisher RP. Modeling and aiding intuition: Introduction to the commentary section. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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18
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Unveiling the Lady in Black: Modeling and aiding intuition. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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