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Russell M, Trofimov A, Bradley P, Matsen IV F. Statistical analysis of repertoire data demonstrates the influence of microhomology in V(D)J recombination. Nucleic Acids Res 2025; 53:gkaf250. [PMID: 40173015 PMCID: PMC11963759 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaf250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2024] [Revised: 02/11/2025] [Accepted: 03/24/2025] [Indexed: 04/04/2025] Open
Abstract
V(D)J recombination generates the diverse B and T cell receptors essential for recognizing a wide array of antigens. This diversity arises from the combinatorial assembly of V(D)J genes and the junctional deletion and insertion of nucleotides. While previous in vitro studies have shown that microhomology-short stretches of sequence homology between gene ends-can bias the recombination process, the extent of microhomology's impact in vivo, particularly in humans, remains unknown. In this paper, we assess how germline-encoded microhomology influences trimming and ligation during V(D)J recombination using statistical inference on previously published high-throughput TCRα repertoire sequencing data. We find that microhomology increases both trimming and ligation probabilities, making it an important predictor of recombination outcomes. These effects are consistent across other receptor loci and sequence types. Further, we demonstrate that accounting for germline microhomology effects significantly alters sequence annotation probabilities and rankings, highlighting its practical importance for accurately inferring the V(D)J recombination events that generated an observed sequence. Together, these results enhance our understanding of how germline-encoded microhomologous nucleotides shape the human V(D)J recombination process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena L Russell
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109, United States
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
| | - Assya Trofimov
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109, United States
- Department of Physics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
| | - Philip Bradley
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109, United States
- Institute for Protein Design, Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
| | - Frederick A Matsen IV
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109, United States
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
- Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
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Russell ML, Trofimov A, Bradley P, Matsen FA. Statistical analysis of repertoire data demonstrates the influence of microhomology in V(D)J recombination. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.10.16.618753. [PMID: 39464162 PMCID: PMC11507937 DOI: 10.1101/2024.10.16.618753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/29/2024]
Abstract
V(D)J recombination generates the diverse B and T cell receptors essential for recognizing a wide array of antigens. This diversity arises from the combinatorial assembly of V(D)J genes and the junctional deletion and insertion of nucleotides. While previous in vitro studies have shown that microhomology--short stretches of sequence homology between gene ends--can bias the recombination process, the extent of microhomology's impact in vivo, particularly in humans, remains unknown. In this paper, we assess how germline-encoded microhomology influences trimming and ligation during V(D)J recombination using statistical inference on previously-published high-throughput TCRα repertoire sequencing data. We find that microhomology increases both trimming and ligation probabilities, making it an important predictor of recombination outcomes. These effects are consistent across different receptor loci and sequence types. Further, we demonstrate that accounting for microhomology effects significantly alters sequence annotation probabilities and rankings, highlighting its practical importance for accurately inferring the V(D)J recombination events that generated an observed sequence. Together, these results enhance our understanding of how microhomologous nucleotides shape the human V(D)J recombination process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena L Russell
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Assya Trofimov
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109
- Department of Physics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Philip Bradley
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109
- Institute for Protein Design, Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Frederick A Matsen
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
- Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Seattle, WA 98195
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3
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Chen L, Hu Y, Zheng B, Luo L, Su Z. Human TCR repertoire in cancer. Cancer Med 2024; 13:e70164. [PMID: 39240157 PMCID: PMC11378360 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.70164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Revised: 08/02/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND T cells, the "superstar" of the immune system, play a crucial role in antitumor immunity. T-cell receptors (TCR) are crucial molecules that enable T cells to identify antigens and start immunological responses. The body has evolved a unique method for rearrangement, resulting in a vast diversity of TCR repertoires. A healthy TCR repertoire is essential for the particular identification of antigens by T cells. METHODS In this article, we systematically summarized the TCR creation mechanisms and analysis methodologies, particularly focusing on the application of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology. We explore the TCR repertoire in health and cancer, and discuss the implications of TCR repertoire analysis in understanding carcinogenesis, cancer progression, and treatment. RESULTS The TCR repertoire analysis has enormous potential for monitoring the emergence and progression of malignancies, as well as assessing therapy response and prognosis. The application of NGS has dramatically accelerated our comprehension of TCR diversity and its role in cancer immunity. CONCLUSIONS To substantiate the significance of TCR repertoires as biomarkers, more thorough and exhaustive research should be conducted. The TCR repertoire analysis, enabled by advanced sequencing technologies, is poised to become a crucial tool in the future of cancer diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Chen
- Department of Medical Genetics/Prenatal Diagnostic Center, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuan Hu
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
- Department of Anesthesia Nursing, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University/West China School of Nursing, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Bohao Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Limei Luo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhenzhen Su
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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4
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Sormunen S, Leskelä L, Saramäki J. Distinguishing subsampled power laws from other heavy-tailed distributions. Phys Rev E 2024; 109:054308. [PMID: 38907423 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.109.054308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Distinguishing power-law distributions from other heavy-tailed distributions is challenging, and this task is often further complicated by subsampling effects. In this work, we evaluate the performance of two commonly used methods for detecting power-law distributions-the maximum likelihood method of Clauset et al. and the extreme value method of Voitalov et al.-in distinguishing subsampled power laws from two other heavy-tailed distributions, the lognormal and the stretched exponential distributions. We focus on a random subsampling method commonly applied in network science and biological sciences. In this subsampling scheme, we are ultimately interested in the frequency distribution of elements with a certain number of constituent parts-for example, species with k individuals or nodes with k connections-and each part is selected to the subsample with an equal probability. We investigate how well the results obtained from low-subsampling-depth subsamples generalize to the original distribution. Our results show that the power-law exponent of the original distribution can be estimated fairly accurately from subsamples, but classifying the distribution correctly is more challenging. The maximum likelihood method falsely rejects the power-law hypothesis for a large fraction of subsamples from power-law distributions. While the extreme value method correctly recognizes subsampled power-law distributions with all tested subsampling depths, its capacity to distinguish power laws from the heavy-tailed alternatives is limited. However, these false positives tend to result not from the subsampling itself but from the estimators' inability to classify the original sample correctly. In fact, we show that the extreme value method can sometimes be expected to perform better on subsamples than on the original samples from the lognormal and the stretched exponential distributions, while the contrary is true for the main tests included in the maximum likelihood method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silja Sormunen
- Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, 00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Lasse Leskelä
- Department of Mathematics and Systems Analysis, Aalto University, 00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Jari Saramäki
- Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, 00076 Espoo, Finland
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Ostmeyer J, Park JY, von Itzstein MS, Hsiehchen D, Fattah F, Gwin M, Catalan R, Khan S, Raj P, Wakeland EK, Xie Y, Gerber DE. T-cell tolerant fraction as a predictor of immune-related adverse events. J Immunother Cancer 2023; 11:e006437. [PMID: 37580069 PMCID: PMC10432621 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2022-006437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapies may cause unpredictable and potentially severe autoimmune toxicities termed immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Because T cells mediate ICI effects, T cell profiling may provide insight into the risk of irAEs. Here we evaluate a novel metric-the T-cell tolerant fraction-as a predictor of future irAEs. METHODS We examined T-cell receptor beta (TRB) locus sequencing from baseline pretreatment samples from an institutional registry and previously published studies. For each patient, we used TRB sequences to calculate the T-cell tolerant fraction, which was then assessed as a predictor of future irAEs (classified as Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Event grade 0-1 vs grade ≥2). We then compared the tolerant fraction to TRB clonality and diversity. Finally, the tolerant fraction was assessed on (1) T cells enriched against napsin A, a potential autoantigen of irAEs; (2) thymic versus peripheral blood T cells; and (3) TRBs specific for various infections and autoimmune diseases. RESULTS A total of 77 patients with cancer (22 from an institutional registry and 55 from published studies) receiving ICI therapy (43 CTLA4, 19 PD1/PDL1, 15 combination CTLA4+PD1/PDL1) were included in the study. The tolerant fraction was significantly lower in cases with clinically significant irAEs (p<0.001) and had an area under the receiver operating curve (AUC) of 0.79. The tolerant fraction was lower for each ICI treatment category, reaching statistical significance for CTLA4 (p<0.001) and demonstrating non-significant trends for PD1/PDL1 (p=0.21) and combination ICI (p=0.18). The tolerant fraction for T cells enriched against napsin A was lower than other samples. The tolerant fraction was also lower in thymic versus peripheral blood samples, and lower in some (multiple sclerosis) but not other (type 1 diabetes) autoimmune diseases. In our study cohort, TRB clonality had an AUC of 0.62, and TRB diversity had an AUC of 0.60 for predicting irAEs. CONCLUSIONS Among patients receiving ICI, the baseline T-cell tolerant fraction may serve as a predictor of clinically significant irAEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared Ostmeyer
- Peter O'Donnell School of Public Health, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Jason Y Park
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Mitchell S von Itzstein
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - David Hsiehchen
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Harold C Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Farjana Fattah
- Harold C Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Mary Gwin
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Rodrigo Catalan
- Harold C Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Shaheen Khan
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Prithvi Raj
- Department of Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Edward K Wakeland
- Department of Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Yang Xie
- Peter O'Donnell School of Public Health, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Harold C Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - David E Gerber
- Peter O'Donnell School of Public Health, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Harold C Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
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Mattila J, Sormunen S, Heikkilä N, Mattila IP, Saramäki J, Arstila TP. Analysis of thymic generation of shared T-cell receptor α repertoire associated with recognition of tumor antigens shows no preference for neoantigens over wild-type antigens. Cancer Med 2023; 12:13486-13496. [PMID: 37114587 PMCID: PMC10315763 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.6002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The number of mutations in cancer cells is an important predictor of a positive response to cancer immunotherapy. It has been suggested that the neoantigens produced by these mutations are more immunogenic than nonmutated tumor antigens, which are likely to be protected by immunological tolerance. However, the mechanisms of tolerance as regards tumor antigens are incompletely understood. METHODS Here, we have analyzed the impact of thymic negative selection on shared T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoire associated with the recognition of either mutated or nonmutated tumor antigens by comparing previously known TCR-antigen-pairs to TCR repertoires of 21 immunologically healthy individuals. RESULTS Our results show that TCRα chains associated with either type of tumor antigens are readily generated in the thymus, at a frequency similar to TCRα chains associated with nonself. In the peripheral repertoire, the relative clone size of nonself-associated chains is higher than that of the tumor antigens, but importantly, there is no difference between TCRα chains associated with mutated or nonmutated tumor antigens. CONCLUSION This suggests that the tolerance mechanisms protecting nonmutated tumor antigens are non-deletional and therefore potentially reversible. As unmutated antigens are, unlike mutations, shared by a large number of patients, they may offer advantages in designing immunological approaches to cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joonatan Mattila
- Research Programs Unit, Translational Immunology, Haartmaninkatu 3 (PL 21) 00014, and MedicumUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
| | - Silja Sormunen
- Department of Computer ScienceAalto UniversityEspooFinland
| | - Nelli Heikkilä
- Research Programs Unit, Translational Immunology, Haartmaninkatu 3 (PL 21) 00014, and MedicumUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
- Faculty of Medicine, Center for Vaccinology, Department of Pathology and ImmunologyUniversity of GenevaGenevaSwitzerland
| | - Ilkka P. Mattila
- Department of Pediatric Cardiac and Transplantation SurgeryHospital for Children and Adolescents, Helsinki University Central HospitalHelsinkiFinland
| | - Jari Saramäki
- Department of Computer ScienceAalto UniversityEspooFinland
| | - T. Petteri Arstila
- Research Programs Unit, Translational Immunology, Haartmaninkatu 3 (PL 21) 00014, and MedicumUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
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Trofimov A, Brouillard P, Larouche JD, Séguin J, Laverdure JP, Brasey A, Ehx G, Roy DC, Busque L, Lachance S, Lemieux S, Perreault C. Two types of human TCR differentially regulate reactivity to self and non-self antigens. iScience 2022; 25:104968. [PMID: 36111255 PMCID: PMC9468382 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on analyses of TCR sequences from over 1,000 individuals, we report that the TCR repertoire is composed of two ontogenically and functionally distinct types of TCRs. Their production is regulated by variations in thymic output and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TDT) activity. Neonatal TCRs derived from TDT-negative progenitors persist throughout life, are highly shared among subjects, and are reported as disease-associated. Thus, 10%–30% of most frequent cord blood TCRs are associated with common pathogens and autoantigens. TDT-dependent TCRs present distinct structural features and are less shared among subjects. TDT-dependent TCRs are produced in maximal numbers during infancy when thymic output and TDT activity reach a summit, are more abundant in subjects with AIRE mutations, and seem to play a dominant role in graft-versus-host disease. Factors decreasing thymic output (age, male sex) negatively impact TCR diversity. Males compensate for their lower repertoire diversity via hyperexpansion of selected TCR clonotypes. Over 108 TCR CDR3 sequences from ∼103 individuals and 7 cohorts were analyzed The TCR repertoire is composed of two layers: neonatal and TDT-dependent layer ∼70% of frequent cord blood TCRs are associated with common pathogens Acute graft-vs-host disease correlates with a high proportion of TDT-dependent TCRs
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Affiliation(s)
- Assya Trofimov
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Computer Science and Research Operations, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Quebec Institute for Learning Algorithms (Mila), Montreal, Quebec H2S 3H1, Canada
- Currently Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Currently Department of Physics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1560, USA
| | - Philippe Brouillard
- Department of Computer Science and Research Operations, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Quebec Institute for Learning Algorithms (Mila), Montreal, Quebec H2S 3H1, Canada
| | - Jean-David Larouche
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Jonathan Séguin
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Jean-Philippe Laverdure
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Ann Brasey
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Montreal, Quebec H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - Gregory Ehx
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Currently Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Geno-Proteomics (GIGA-I3), University of Liege, Liege 4000, Belgium
| | | | - Lambert Busque
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Montreal, Quebec H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - Silvy Lachance
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Montreal, Quebec H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - Sébastien Lemieux
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Computer Science and Research Operations, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry at University of Montreal, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Corresponding author
| | - Claude Perreault
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Montreal, Quebec H1T 2M4, Canada
- Corresponding author
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Fu J, Khosravi-Maharlooei M, Sykes M. High Throughput Human T Cell Receptor Sequencing: A New Window Into Repertoire Establishment and Alloreactivity. Front Immunol 2021; 12:777756. [PMID: 34804070 PMCID: PMC8604183 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.777756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in high throughput sequencing (HTS) of T cell receptors (TCRs) and in transcriptomic analysis, particularly at the single cell level, have opened the door to a new level of understanding of human immunology and immune-related diseases. In this article, we discuss the use of HTS of TCRs to discern the factors controlling human T cell repertoire development and how this approach can be used in combination with human immune system (HIS) mouse models to understand human repertoire selection in an unprecedented manner. An exceptionally high proportion of human T cells has alloreactive potential, which can best be understood as a consequence of the processes governing thymic selection. High throughput TCR sequencing has allowed assessment of the development, magnitude and nature of the human alloresponse at a new level and has provided a tool for tracking the fate of pre-transplant-defined donor- and host-reactive TCRs following transplantation. New insights into human allograft rejection and tolerance obtained with this method in combination with single cell transcriptional analyses are reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianing Fu
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Mohsen Khosravi-Maharlooei
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Megan Sykes
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Surgery, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
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