Signaling through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulates mechanotaxis induced by local low magnetic forces in Entamoeba histolytica

Live Cells Imaging and Comparative Phosphoproteomics Uncover Proteins from the Mechanobiome in Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite and the causative agent of amoebiasis in humans. This amoeba invades human tissues by taking advantage of its actin-rich cytoskeleton to move, enter the tissue matrix, kill and phagocyte the human cells. During tissue invasion, E. histolytica moves from the intestinal lumen across the mucus layer and enters the epithelial parenchyma. Faced with the chemical and physical constraints of these diverse environments, E. histolytica has developed sophisticated systems to integrate internal and external signals and to coordinate cell shape changes and motility. Cell signalling circuits are driven by interactions between the parasite and extracellular matrix, combined with rapid responses from the mechanobiome in which protein phosphorylation plays an important role. To understand the role of phosphorylation events and related signalling mechanisms, we targeted phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases followed by live cell imaging and phosphoproteomics. The results highlight 1150 proteins, out of the 7966 proteins within the amoebic proteome, as members of the phosphoproteome, including signalling and structural molecules involved in cytoskeletal activities. Inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases alters phosphorylation in important members of these categories; a finding that correlates with changes in amoeba motility and morphology, as well as a decrease in actin-rich adhesive structures.

Mathematical modeling of chemotaxis guided amoeboid cell swimming

Cells and microorganisms adopt various strategies to migrate in response to different environmental stimuli. To date, many modeling research has focused on the crawling-basedDictyostelium discoideum(Dd) cells migration induced by chemotaxis, yet recent experimental results reveal that even without adhesion or contact to a substrate, Dd cells can still swim to follow chemoattractant signals. In this paper, we develop a modeling framework to investigate the chemotaxis induced amoeboid cell swimming dynamics. A minimal swimming system consists of one deformable Dd amoeboid cell and a dilute suspension of bacteria, and the bacteria produce chemoattractant signals that attract the Dd cell. We use themathematical amoeba modelto generate Dd cell deformation and solve the resulting low Reynolds number flows, and use a moving mesh based finite volume method to solve the reaction-diffusion-convection equation. Using the computational model, we show that chemotaxis guides a swimming Dd cell to follow and catch bacteria, while on the other hand, bacterial rheotaxis may help the bacteria to escape from the predator Dd cell.

Bioimage Analysis and Cell Motility

Bioimage analysis (BIA) has historically helped study how and why cells move; biological experiments evolved in intimate feedback with the most classical image processing techniques because they contribute objectivity and reproducibility to an eminently qualitative science. Cell segmentation, tracking, and morphology descriptors are all discussed here. Using ameboid motility as a case study, these methods help us illustrate how proper quantification can augment biological data, for example, by choosing mathematical representations that amplify initially subtle differences, by statistically uncovering general laws or by integrating physical insight. More recently, the non-invasive nature of quantitative imaging is fertilizing two blooming fields: mechanobiology, where many biophysical measurements remain inaccessible, and microenvironments, where the quest for physiological relevance has exploded data size. From relief to remedy, this trend indicates that BIA is to become a main vector of biological discovery as human visual analysis struggles against ever more complex data.

A lysosomal hydrolase receptor, CPBF2, is associated with motility and invasion of the enteric protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Proper targeting and secretion of lysosomal hydrolases are regulated by transporting receptors. Entamoeba histolytica, the enteric protozoan parasite responsible for human amebiasis, has a unique family of lysosomal hydrolase receptors, cysteine protease binding protein family, CPBF. CPBFs, consisting of 11 members with conserved domain organization, bind to a wide range of cargos including cysteine proteases and glycosidases, which are also known to be involved in pathogenesis of this parasite. In this study, we characterized one of CPBFs, CPBF2, which is involved in cell motility and extracellular matrix invasion. Unexpectedly, these roles of CPBF were not related to its cargo, α-amylase. This is the first demonstration that a putative hydrolase receptor is involved in cell motility and invasion in parasitic protozoa.

Crosstalk between Entamoeba histolytica and the human intestinal tract during amoebiasis

The protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica is the microbial agent of amoebiasis - an infection that is endemic worldwide and is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. As the disease develops, virulent E. histolytica deplete the mucus layer, interact with the intestinal epithelium, and then degrade the colonic mucosa and disrupt the extracellular matrix (ECM). Our research demonstrated that virulent parasites with an invasive phenotype display rapid, highly specific changes in their transcriptome (notably for essential factors involved in carbohydrate metabolism and the processing of glycosylated residues). Moreover, combined activation of parasite and host lytic enzymes leads to the destruction of the intestinal parenchyma. Together, these enzymes degrade the mucus layer and the ECM, and trigger the inflammatory response essential to the development of amoebiasis.

Amoeboid movement in protozoan pathogens

Entamoeba histolytica, the causative agent of amoebiasis, is a protozoan parasite characterised by its amoeboid motility, which is essential to its survival and invasion of the human host. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms leading to invasion of human tissues by E. histolytica requires a quantitative understanding of how its cytoskeleton deforms and tailors its mode of migration to the local microenvironment. Here we review the wide range of methods available to extract biophysical information from amoeboid cells, from interventional techniques to computational modelling approaches, and discuss how recent developments in bioimaging and bioimage informatics can complement our understanding of cellular morphodynamics at the intracellular level.

Structure-based identification of inositol polyphosphate 1-phosphatase from Entamoeba histolytica

Inositol polyphosphate 1-phosphatase from Entamoeba histolytica (EhIPPase) is an Mg(2+)-dependent and Li(+)-sensitive enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of inositol 1,4-bisphosphate [Ins(1,4)P2] into myo-inositol 1-monophosphate and PO4(3-). In the present work, EhIPPase has been biochemically identified and its crystal structure has been determined in the presence of Mg(2+) and PO4(3-) at 2.5 Å resolution. This enzyme was previously classified as a 3'(2'),5'-bisphosphate nucleotidase in the NCBI, but its biochemical activity and structural analysis suggest that this enzyme behaves more like an inositol polyphosphate 1-phosphatase. The ability of EhIPPase to hydrolyze the smaller Ins(1,4)P2 better than the bulkier 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphate (PAP) is explained on the basis of the orientations of amino-acid residues in the binding site. This structure is the first of its class to be determined from any protozoan parasite, and is the third to determined among all organisms, following its rat and bovine homologues. The three-dimensional fold of EhIPPase is similar to those of other members of the inositol monophosphatase superfamily, which also includes inositol monophosphatase, 3'(2'),5'-bisphosphate nucleotidase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate 1-phosphatase. They all share conserved residues essential for metal binding and substrate hydrolysis, with the motif D-Xn-EE-Xn-DP(I/L)DG(S/T)-Xn-WD-Xn-GG. The structure is divided into two domains, namely α+β and α/β, and the substrate and metal ions bind between them. However, the ability of each enzyme class to act specifically on its cognate substrate is governed by the class-specific amino-acid residues at the active site.

Lymphocytes can self-steer passively with wind vane uropods

A wide variety of cells migrate directionally in response to chemical or mechanical cues, however the mechanisms involved in cue detection and translation into directed movement are debatable. Here we investigate a model of lymphocyte migration on the inner surface of blood vessels. Cells orient their migration against fluid flow, suggesting the existence of an adaptive mechano-tranduction mechanism. We find that flow detection may not require molecular mechano-sensors of shear stress, and detection of flow direction can be achieved by the orientation in the flow of the non-adherent cell rear, the uropod. Uropods act as microscopic wind vanes that can transmit detection of flow direction into cell steering via the on-going machinery of polarity maintenance, without the need for novel internal guidance signalling triggered by flow. Contrary to chemotaxis, which implies active regulation of cue-dependent signalling, upstream flow mechanotaxis of lymphocytes may only rely on a passive self-steering mechanism.

Persistent cellular motion control and trapping using mechanotactic signaling

Chemotactic signaling and the associated directed cell migration have been extensively studied owing to their importance in emergent processes of cellular aggregation. In contrast, mechanotactic signaling has been relatively overlooked despite its potential for unique ways to artificially signal cells with the aim to effectively gain control over their motile behavior. The possibility of mimicking cellular mechanotactic signals offers a fascinating novel strategy to achieve targeted cell delivery for in vitro tissue growth if proven to be effective with mammalian cells. Using (i) optimal level of extracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺ ]_ext mM) we found, (ii) controllable fluid shear stress of low magnitude (), and (iii) the ability to swiftly reverse flow direction (within one second), we are able to successfully signal Dictyostelium discoideum amoebae and trigger migratory responses with heretofore unreported control and precision. Specifically, we are able to systematically determine the mechanical input signal required to achieve any predetermined sequences of steps including straightforward motion, reversal and trapping. The mechanotactic cellular trapping is achieved for the first time and is associated with a stalling frequency of Hz for a reversing direction mechanostimulus, above which the cells are effectively trapped while maintaining a high level of directional sensing. The value of this frequency is very close to the stalling frequency recently reported for chemotactic cell trapping [Meier B, et al. (2011) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:11417–11422], suggesting that the limiting factor may be the slowness of the internal chemically-based motility apparatus.

Amoebic PI3K and PKC is required for Jurkat T cell death induced by Entamoeba histolytica

The enteric protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica is the causative agent of human amebiasis. During infection, adherence of E. histolytica through Gal/GalNAc lectin on the surface of the amoeba can induce caspase-3-dependent or -independent host cell death. Phosphorylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase C (PKC) in E. histolytica play an important function in the adhesion, killing, or phagocytosis of target cells. In this study, we examined the role of amoebic PI3K and PKC in amoeba-induced apoptotic cell death in Jurkat T cells. When Jurkat T cells were incubated with E. histolytica trophozoites, phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization and DNA fragmentation in Jurkat cells were markedly increased compared to those of cells incubated with medium alone. However, when amoebae were pretreated with a PI3K inhibitor, wortmannin before being incubated with E. histolytica, E. histolytica-induced PS externalization and DNA fragmentation in Jurkat cells were significantly reduced compared to results for amoebae pretreated with DMSO. In addition, pretreatment of amoebae with a PKC inhibitor, staurosporine strongly inhibited Jurkat T cell death. However, E. histolytica-induced cleavage of caspase-3, -6, and -7 were not inhibited by pretreatment of amoebae with wortmannin or staurosporin. In addition, we found that amoebic PI3K and PKC have an important role on amoeba adhesion to host compartment. These results suggest that amebic PI3K and PKC activation may play an important role in caspase-independent cell death in Entamoeba-induced apoptosis.

A genomewide overexpression screen identifies genes involved in the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway in the human protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite that causes amoebic dysentery and liver abscess. E. histolytica relies on motility, phagocytosis, host cell adhesion, and proteolysis of extracellular matrix for virulence. In eukaryotic cells, these processes are mediated in part by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling. Thus, PI3K may be critical for virulence. We utilized a functional genomics approach to identify genes whose products may operate in the PI3K pathway in E. histolytica. We treated a population of trophozoites that were overexpressing genes from a cDNA library with a near-lethal dose of the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin. This screen was based on the rationale that survivors would be overexpressing gene products that directly or indirectly function in the PI3K pathway. We sequenced the overexpressed genes in survivors and identified a cDNA encoding a Rap GTPase, a protein previously shown to participate in the PI3K pathway. This supports the validity of our approach. Genes encoding a coactosin-like protein, EhCoactosin, and a serine-rich E. histolytica protein (SREHP) were also identified. Cells overexpressing EhCoactosin or SREHP were also less sensitive to a second PI3K inhibitor, LY294002. This corroborates the link between these proteins and PI3K. Finally, a mutant cell line with an increased level of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-triphosphate, the product of PI3K activity, exhibited increased expression of SREHP and EhCoactosin. This further supports the functional connection between these proteins and PI3K in E. histolytica. To our knowledge, this is the first forward-genetics screen adapted to reveal genes participating in a signal transduction pathway in this pathogen.

T lymphocytes orient against the direction of fluid flow during LFA-1-mediated migration

As they leave the blood stream and travel to lymph nodes or sites of inflammation, T lymphocytes are captured by the endothelium and migrate along the vascular wall to permissive sites of transmigration. These processes take place under the influence of hemodynamic shear stress; therefore, we investigated how migrational speed and directionality are influenced by variations in shear stress. We examined human effector T lymphocytes on intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1)-coated surfaces under the influence of shear stresses from 2 to 60 dyn.cm(-2). T lymphocytes were shown to respond to shear stress application by a rapid (30 s) and fully reversible orientation of their migration against the fluid flow without a change in migration speed. Primary T lymphocytes migrating on ICAM-1 in the presence of uniformly applied SDF-1α were also found to migrate against the direction of shear flow. In sharp contrast, neutrophils migrating in the presence of uniformly applied fMLP and leukemic HSB2 T lymphocytes migrating on ICAM-1 alone oriented their migration downstream, with the direction of fluid flow. Our findings suggest that, in addition to biochemical cues, shear stress is a contributing factor to leukocyte migration directionality.

[Magnetic nanoparticles as tools for cell therapy]

Labelling living cells with magnetic nanoparticles creates opportunities for numerous biomedical applications such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) cell tracking, cell manipulation, cell patterning for tissue engineering and magnetically-assisted cell delivery. The unique advantage of magnetic-based methods is to activate or monitor cell behavior by a remote stimulus, the magnetic field. Cell labelling methods using superparamagnetic nanoparticles have been widely developed, showing no adverse effect on cell proliferation and functionalities while conferring magnetic properties to various cell types. This paper first describes how cells can become responsive to magnetic field by safely internalizing magnetic nanoparticles. We next show how magnetic cells can be detected by MRI, giving the opportunity for non-invasive in vivo monitoring of cell migration. We exemplify the fact that MRI cell tracking has become a method of choice to follow the fate of administrated cells in cell therapy assay, whether the cells are grafted locally or administrated in the circulation. Finally we give different examples of magnetic manipulation of cells and their applications to regenerative medicine. Magnetic cell manipulation are forecasted to be more and more developed, in order to improve tissue engineering technique and assist cell-based therapies. Owing to the clinical approval of iron-oxide nanoparticles as MRI contrast agent, there is no major obstacle in the translation to human clinics of the magnetic methods summarized in this paper.

Migration of human mesenchymal stem cells under low shear stress mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling

Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are attractive candidates for cell-based tissue repair approaches and have been used as vectors for delivering therapeutic genes to sites of injury. It is believed that hMSCs are able to detect and respond to shear stress due to blood and interstitial fluid flow through mechanotransduction pathways after transplantation. However, information regarding hMSC migration under shear stress and its mechanism is still limited. In this study, we examined the effect of shear stress on hMSC migration and the role of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in their migration. Shear stress between 0.2 and 10 Pa, which was produced by the flow medium, was exerted on fluorescently labeled hMSCs. Cell migration was evaluated using the scratch wound assay, and images were captured using a microscope equipped with a digital 3CCD camera. The results showed that hMSCs subjected to a shear stress of 0.2 Pa caused notably faster wound closure than statically cultured hMSCs, while migration in the 0.5- and 1-Pa shear stress group did not differ significantly from that in the control group. Shear stress >2 Pa markedly inhibited hMSC migration. hMSCs subjected to a shear stress of 0.2 Pa displayed an increase in extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), and p38 MAPK activation for up to 60 min, while a shear stress of 2 Pa abrogated the activation. JNK and p38 MAPK inhibitors completely abolished the effect of shear stress on hMSC migration, while significant differences were observed between the ERK1/2 inhibitor-treated static control and shear stress groups. Taken together, these results demonstrate that low shear stress effectively induces hMSC migration and that JNK and p38 MAPK play more prominent roles in shear stress-induced migration than ERK1/2.

Hydrodynamics of cell-cell mechanical signaling in the initial stages of aggregation

Mechanotactic cell motility has recently been shown to be a key player in the initial aggregation of crawling cells such as leukocytes and amoebae. The effects of mechanotactic signaling in the early aggregation of amoeboid cells are here investigated using a general mathematical model based on known biological evidence. We elucidate the hydrodynamic fundamentals of the direct guiding of a cell through mechanotaxis in the case where one cell transmits a mechanotactic signal through the fluid flow by changing its shape. It is found that any mechanosensing cells placed in the stimulus field of mechanical stress are able to determine the signal transmission direction with a certain angular dispersion which does not preclude the aggregation from happening. The ubiquitous presence of noise is accounted for by the model. Finally, the mesoscopic pattern of aggregation is obtained which constitutes the bridge between, on one hand, the microscopic world where the changes in the cell shape occur and, on the other hand, the cooperative behavior of the cells at the mesoscopic scale.

Universal cell labelling with anionic magnetic nanoparticles

Magnetic labelling of living cells creates opportunities for numerous biomedical applications, from individual cell manipulation to MRI tracking. Here we describe a non-specific labelling method based on anionic magnetic nanoparticles (AMNPs). These particles first adsorb electrostatically to the outer membrane before being internalized within endosomes. We compared the labelling mechanism, uptake efficiency and biocompatibility with 14 different cell types, including adult cells, progenitor cells, immune cells and tumour cells. A single model was found to describe cell/nanoparticle interactions and to predict uptake efficiency by all the cell types. The potential impact of the AMNP label on cell functions, in vitro and in vivo, is discussed according to cellular specificities. We also show that the same label provides sufficient magnetization for MRI detection and distal manipulation.

Magnetic control of Dictyostelium aggregation

We report the control of cell migration by external magnetic forces during the early stage of Dictysostelium discoideum morphogenesis. Magnetically labeled aggregating cells respond to the presence of a magnetic field created by a thin magnetic tip: forces as low as 30 pN are sufficient to elicit the aggregation of the cells at the extremity of the tip. This induced magnetotaxis is competitive to classical chemotaxis. We therefore underline the interplay between external mechanical forces and morphogenesis. This magnetic assay will open new possibilities in the study of morphogenesis in Dictyostelium.