Serum and urinary macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) in primary Sjögren's syndrome

Extracellular ATP Increases Glucose Metabolism in Skeletal Muscle Cells in a P2 Receptor Dependent Manner but Does Not Contribute to Palmitate-Induced Insulin Resistance

Saturated fatty acids such as palmitate contribute to the development of Type 2 Diabetes by reducing insulin sensitivity, increasing inflammation and potentially contributing to anabolic resistance. We hypothesized that palmitate-induced ATP release from skeletal muscle cells may increase inflammatory cytokine production and contribute to insulin/anabolic resistance in an autocrine/paracrine manner. In C2C12 myotubes differentiated at physiological glucose concentrations (5.5 mM), palmitate treatment (16 h) at concentrations greater than 250 μM increased release of ATP and inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and MIF, significantly blunted insulin and amino acid-induced signaling and reduced mitochondrial function. In contrast to our hypothesis, degradation of extracellular ATP using apyrase, did not alter palmitate-induced insulin resistance nor alter release of cytokines. Moreover, treatment with ATPγS (16 h), a non-hydrolysable ATP analog, in the absence of palmitate, did not diminish insulin sensitivity. Acute treatment with ATPγS produced insulin mimetic roles; increased phosphorylation of PKB (aka AKT), S6K1 and ERK and enhanced GLUT4-mediated glucose uptake in the absence of exogenous insulin. The increases in PKB and S6K1 phosphorylation were completely prevented by pre-incubation with broad spectrum purinergic receptor (P2R) blockers PPADs and suramin but not by P2 × 4 or P2 × 7 blockers 5-BDBD or A-438079, respectively. Moreover, ATPγS increased IL-6 yet decreased MIF release, similar to the cytokine profile produced by exercise. Acute and chronic treatment with ATPγS increased glycolytic rate in a manner that was differentially inhibited by PPADs and suramin, suggesting heterogeneous P2R activation in the control of cellular metabolism. In summary, our data suggest that the palmitate-induced increase in ATP does not contribute to insulin/anabolic resistance in a cell autonomous manner.

Measuring MIF in Biological Fluids

MIF is a key regulator of host immune responses and increased levels secreted from cells, or found circulating systemically, have been implicated in the pathogenesis of many inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. Here, we describe methods for detecting and quantifying extracellular concentrations of MIF in both human- and murine-derived biological samples.