Occurrence of heterocyclic amines in several home-cooked meat dishes of the Spanish diet

Propolis extract reduces heterocyclic aromatic amine formation in chicken thigh meat

1. The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of propolis extract on reducing the formation of carcinogenic/mutagenic heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), thereby minimising dietary exposure in human consumers.2. Chicken thigh meat samples were marinated with various concentrations (0%, 0.25%, 0.5% and 1%) of propolis extract, and cooked in a pan at 150°C or 200°C. Proximate composition, pH, lipid oxidation, creatine, creatinine content and twelve HAA levels of samples were analysed.3. Varying levels of IQx (≤35.44 ng/g), MeIQx (≤0.58 ng/g), MeIQ (≤1.60 ng/g), 7,8-DiMeIQx (≤0.83 ng/g), 4,8-DiMeIQx (≤0.75 ng/g), Harman (≤5.54 ng/g), Trp-P-2 (≤1.77 ng/g), PhIP (≤1.61 ng/g) and AαC (≤0.93 ng/g) were quantified in control samples. Total HAA levels ranged between 2.83 and 47.26 ng/g across all samples. Propolis extract decreased the levels of total HAAs by 41.2-89.4% and 49.4-91.4% at 150°C and 200°C, respectively.4. The results demonstrated that propolis extract marination might be an effective strategy to reduce the dietary exposure of HAAs via mitigating their formation in chicken thigh meat.

Assessment of heterocyclic aromatic amines contents in flamed and braised chicken in Burkina Faso

The nutritional status of meat is tarnished by its association with the induced cooking contaminants. The aim of this study was to assess the heterocyclic aromatic amines profile and contents in processed chicken in Burkina Faso. Eight polar and apolar heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) including 2-mino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinolone (IQ), 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido[4, 3-b]indole (Trp-P1), 3-amino-1-methyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P2), 2-mino-9H-pyrido-[2,3-b]indole (AαC), 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4, 5- ]pyridine (PhIP), 2-amino-3-methyl-9H-pyrido[2,3-b] indole (MeAαC), 2-amino-3,4,8-rimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx) and 2-amino-3,8-imethylimidazo[4,5-]quinoxaline (MeIQx) were screened by high performance liquid chromatography from 29 samples of flamed chicken and 66 samples of braised chicken collected in Ouagadougou city. Apolar HAAs and polar HAAs were respectively 12 and 3 times more abundant in flamed chickens (32.66±10 and 3.48±10.39 ng/g, respectively) than in braised chickens (2.70±9.67 and 0.92 ng/g, respectively). The maximum levels of AαC were in the same proportions in flamed (12.01 ng/g) and braised chickens (14.13 ng/g). Flamed chicken had the highest Trp-P1 content (530.31 ng/g). The 4,8-DiMeIQx was not detected in braised chicken. The AαCs were more abundant in flamed than in braised chicken. The profile and the contents of the HAAs in processed chicken are related to cooking methods. Because of the high variability observed on the obtained concentrations, investigations on the contents of precursors in raw chicken, the effect of marinating ingredients on the formation of HAAs are needed.

Simultaneous kinetics formation of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in phenylalanine model system

A combination of chemical model system with kinetics study was used to investigate the simultaneous formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Heating a mixture of phenylalanine, creatinine, and glucose at a commonly practiced household cooking time and temperature successfully differentiated the rate formation (k) of HCAs and PAHs. The good fit suggested that the simultaneous formation was an endothermic bimolecular reaction, and followed the first-order model. The rate formation (k) of HCAs and PAHs significantly increased with increasing heating time and temperature. Only 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ) and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) showed degradation rate (k) at higher heating temperatures of 210 °C and 240 °C respectively. Increasing phenylalanine concentration increased the possibility of higher HCAs and PAHs formation. The activation energy (Ea) showed that heating phenylalanine mixture resulted in higher rate of formation of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) and benzo[b]fluoranthen (BbF).

Establishment of an appropriate method for determining multiple heterocyclic amines in soy products processed with various methods

A method using UPLC-MS/MS and a core-shell C18 column was developed to simultaneously determine 21 heterocyclic amines (HAs) in 15 min. Appropriate QuEChERS conditions were also established to conveniently extract HAs from soy products cooked with various methods. These conditions presented good analytical performance; limit of detection, limit of quantification, recovery (%), repeatability (coefficient of variation (CV) %) and intermediate precision (CV%) were 0.008 ∼ 0.150 ng/g, 0.025 ∼ 0.500 ng/g, 62 ∼ 91%, ≤ 28% and ≤ 23% for tofu sample, and 0.003 ∼ 0.100 ng/g, 0.010 ∼ 0.350 ng/g, 64 ∼ 93%, ≤ 19% and ≤ 20% for soy milk sample, respectively. HAs contents in the samples increased with cooking temperature and time. The tofu samples cooked by frying had much higher HAs content than those cooked by boiling and roasting. Norharman and Harman mainly contributed HAs content in all samples. For the general population in Taiwan, the highest estimated level of HAs consumed from the samples is 373.67 ng/day.

Heterocyclic amines in cooked meat products, shortcomings during evaluation, factors influencing formation, risk assessment and mitigation strategies

At this point in time, the evidence of a link between well-done meat intake and the incidence of cancer is stronger than it was 20 years ago. Several cohort and case-control studies have confirmed this evidence, and have shown a higher odd ratio and increased exposure to heterocyclic amines (HCAs) among those who frequently consume red meat. However, in most epidemiological studies, dietary assessment, combined with analytical data, is used to estimate the intake of HCAs, which has many inconsistencies. In addition, there is a lack of findings indicating a substantial correlation between various factors, like types of raw meat, types of meat products, and cooking methods that directly or indirectly influence the occurrence of cancer. Although numerous mitigation strategies have been developed to reduce HCAs levels in meat, there is still a high prevalence of carcinogenesis caused by HCAs in humans. The aim of this review is to summarise conflicting reports, address shortcomings and identify emerging trends of cutting-edge research related to HCAs.

Heterocyclic Amine Formation and Mitigation in Processed Meat and Meat Products: A Mini-Review

ABSTRACT

This review provides an assessment of heterocyclic amine (HCA) formation and mitigation in processed meat and meat products. HCAs are formed when amino acids react with creatine during thermal processing of meat and meat products. The formation of HCAs depends on various factors, including the temperature, cooking time, fat contents, and presence of HCA precursors such as water, lipids, and marinades. Additional factors that could affect HCA formation are pH, meat type, and ingredients added during cooking such as antioxidants, amino acids, ions, fat, and sugars, which promote production of HCAs. 2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine, 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline, 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline, 2-amino-3-methylimidazo-[4,5-f]quinoline, and 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline are HCAs of importance because of their link to cancer in humans. More than 25 HCAs have been identified in processed foods. Of these, nine HCAs are possible human carcinogens (group 2B) and one is a probable human carcinogen (group 2A). To mitigate HCA generation during heat processing, various techniques have been used, including recipe variations, adjustments of thermal processing conditions, addition of flavorings, pretreatments such as microwave heating, and addition of naturally occurring and artificial antioxidants.

HIGHLIGHTS

Is oven bag really advantageous in terms of heterocyclic aromatic amines and bisphenol-A? Chicken meat perspective

Herein, the effects of oven bag use belong to different brands on heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAA) formation and bisphenol-A (BPA) migration in cooked chicken meats (breast and leg) were investigated. Samples were also analyzed in terms of some qualitative properties (fatty acid profile, water, fat, pH, TBARS, cooking loss). Both oven bag use and meat type had an effect on qualitative properties of the samples. Total HAA amount changed between 6.53 and 42.32 ng/g, and HAA content was higher in breast meat. Total BPA content in samples cooked with oven bag ranged between non-quantified to 63.78 ng/g. Oven bag use reduced the total HAA amount at the rate of 12 - 68.82%, while it caused the BPA migration depends on the brand. However, it can be noted that the HAA and BPA levels were not at a level to pose a risk to human health in any of the samples.

Shrimp as a substantial source of carcinogenic heterocyclic amines

In the present work, fifteen mutagenic/carcinogenic heterocyclicamines (HAs)were studied in cooked Caridean shrimp (pink) and Penaeid shrimp (tiger, white and brown). The cooking methods were used as stir-frying, broiling and steaming under controlled temperature and time, and HAs determination was performed by SPE/UPLC-ESI-MS/MS. HAs 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx), 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), 2-Amino-1,6-dimethyl-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (DMIP), 1-Methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (Harman) and 9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (Norharman) were identified (0.05-22.48 ng/g) in all stir-fried and broiled shrimp, whereas 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ) was only found (0.08-0.35 ng/g) in stir-fried shrimp. HAs 2-Amino-3,7,8-trimethyl-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (7,8-DiMeIQx) and, α-carbolines 2-Amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (AαC) and 2-Amino-3-methyl-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (MeAαC), γ-carbolines 3-Amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-1) and 3-Amino-1-methyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-2) and δ-carbolines 2-Amino-6-methyldipyrido[1,2-α:3́,2́-d]imidazole (Glu-P-1) and 2-Aminodipyrido[1,2-α:3́,2́-d]imidazole (Glu-P-2) were not detected or found below quantification limit. Brown shrimp (stir-fried) appeared to be more contaminated which constitutes total HAs (81.93 ng/g) followed by pink (70.41 ng/g), tiger (53.02 ng/g) and white (33.57 ng/g). Steaming method does not yield any HAs, and the cause might be elucidate that shrimp were not directly in contact with cooking pan or fire which affect the HAs formation. Food precursors (protein, moisture, fat, creatine and glucose) were also measured in raw and cooked shrimp to investigate the influence on HAs formation. Creatine (3.85 mg/g) and glucose (0.43 mg/g) were found at higher concentrations in brown shrimp, generates high amounts of HAs. Our findings have illustrated that the cooking method, shrimp types and precursors are the main contributors to the formation of HAs. The outcomes from this work could be applied to estimate the HAs human intake globally and add to steaming cooking method in such types of food products that diminish the risk of HAs exposure, and thus to get healthier food quality and security.

Preventive potential and mechanism of dietary polyphenols on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines

Thermal processing is the most important and popular domestic cooking method. More than 30 heterocyclic aromatic amines have been identified in cooked meat using various methods. This review highlights preventive potential and mechanism of dietary polyphenols on the formation of heterocyclic amines. Tea, coffee, fruits, vegetable, and spice extracts rich in polyphenols exerted significant inhibition against the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines. Some polyphenols, such as naringenin and epigallocatechin 3‐O‐gallate, can actively participate into food chemistry reaction to trap Strecker aldehyde and lower the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines. In addition, some polyphenols can lower the mutagenicity of heterocyclic aromatic amines. More specifically, polyphenols possessing two hydroxyl groups at the meta position of aromatic ring are the most efficient one, but the presence of carboxylic or alkyl groups as substituents in the aromatic ring slightly reduced the inhibitory effect.

Xenobiotics Formed during Food Processing: Their Relation with the Intestinal Microbiota and Colorectal Cancer

The colonic epithelium is exposed to a mixture of compounds through diet, among which some are procarcinogens, whereas others have a protective effect. Therefore, the net impact of these compounds on human health depends on the overall balance between all factors involved. Strong scientific evidence has demonstrated the relationship between nitrosamines (NA), heterocyclic amines (HCAs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are the major genotoxins derived from cooking and food processing, and cancer. The mechanisms of the relationship between dietary toxic xenobiotics and cancer risk are not yet well understood, but it has been suggested that differences in dietary habits affect the colonic environment by increasing or decreasing the exposure to mutagens directly and indirectly through changes in the composition and activity of the gut microbiota. Several changes in the proportions of specific microbial groups have been proposed as risk factors for the development of neoplastic lesions and the enrichment of enterotoxigenic microbial strains in stool. In addition, changes in the gut microbiota composition and activity promoted by diet may modify the faecal genotoxicity/cytotoxicity, which can be associated with a higher or lower risk of developing cancer. Therefore, the interaction between dietary components and intestinal bacteria may be a modifiable factor for the development of colorectal cancer in humans and deserves more attention in the near future.

Presence of heterocyclic amine carcinogens in home-cooked and fast-food camel meat burgers commonly consumed in Saudi Arabia

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are formed by cooking protein-rich foods, for instance, meat and fish, and are listed as possible human carcinogens. In the present study, the presence of five potential HCAs (IQ, MeIQ, MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP) in cooked camel meat burgers was analyzed for the first time. The analysis was performed in home-cooked and fast-food burger samples containing food additives. The applied cooking technique for the home-cooked samples was pan frying for a controlled cooking time and temperature. In the control cooked meat samples (samples that contained no food additives), the concentrations of MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP ranged from 2.47 ng/g to 4.89 ng/g, whereas IQ and MeIQ were found to be below the limit of quantification. The concentrations contents of MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, and PhIP in the home-cooked and fast-food samples ranged from 1.52 ng/g to 2.13 ng/g and 1.85 ng/g to 3.46 ng/g, respectively. IQ and MeIQ were not detected in either type of sample. In comparison to the control samples, the home-cooked and fast-food samples produced lower levels of HCAs. Such observations could result from the existence of antioxidants in incorporated food additives, which induce pro-oxidative effects with the successive formation and/or scavenging of free radicals.

Inhibitory Effect of Rosa rugosa Tea Extract on the Formation of Heterocyclic Amines in Meat Patties at Different Temperatures

In previous studies, heterocyclic amines (HCAs) have been identified as carcinogenic and a risk factor for human cancer. Therefore, the present study was designed to identify bioactive natural products capable of controlling the formation of HCAs during cooking. For this purpose we have evaluated the effect of Rosa rugosa tea extract (RTE) on the formation of HCAs in ground beef patties fried at 160 °C or 220 °C. RTE is rich in phenolic compounds and capable of inhibiting the formation of free radicals. The pyrido[3,4-b]indole (norharman) and 1-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (harman) contents were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in RTE-treated patties at 220 °C. 9H-3-Amino-1-methyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole acetate (Trp-P-2) and 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido-[4,3-b]indole acetate (Trp-P-1) were not detected at 160 °C and were statistically (p < 0.01) reduced at 220 °C compared to the control. RTE remarkably inhibited the formation of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) at 220 °C (p < 0.001) and at 160 °C (p < 0.05). 2-Amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (AαC) and 2-amino-3-methyl-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]-indole (MeAαC) were only detected in the control group at 160 °C but were comparatively (p > 0.05) similar in the control and treated groups at 220 °C. 2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), and 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx) were not detected in any sample. Total HCAs were positively correlated with cooking loss. In the RTE-treated groups, 75% of the total HCAs were decreased at 160 °C and 46% at 220 °C, suggesting that RTE is effective at both temperatures and can be used during cooking at high temperatures to lessen the amount of HCAs formed.

Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in Cooked Meat Products: Causes, Formation, Occurrence, and Risk Assessment

Meat products are sources of protein with high biological value and an essential source of other nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals. Heating processes cause food to become more appetizing with changes in texture, appearance, flavor, and chemical properties by the altering of protein structure and other ingredients. During heat treatment, heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), potent mutagens/carcinogens, are formed due to the Maillard reaction. The HAAs are classified in at least 2 groups: thermic HAAs (100 to 300 °C) and pyrolytic HAAs (>300 °C). This review focuses on the parameters and precursors which affect the formation of HAAs: preparation, such as the marinating of meat, and cooking methods, including temperature, duration, and heat transfer, as well as levels of precursors. Additionally, factors are described subject to pH, and the type of meat and ingredients, such as added antioxidants, types of carbohydrates and amino acids, ions, fat, and other substances inhibiting or enhancing the formation of HAAs. An overview of the different analytical methods available is shown to determine the HAAs, including their preparation to clean up the sample prior to extraction. Epidemiological results and human daily intake of HAAs obtained from questionnaires show a relationship between the preference for very well-done meat products with increased HAA levels and an enhanced risk of the incidence of cancer, besides other carcinogens in the diet. The metabolic pathway of HAAs is governed by the activity of several enzymes leading to the formation of DNA adducts or HAA excretion and genetic sensitivity of individuals to the impact of HAAs on human cancer risk.

Influence of food condiments on the formation of carcinogenic heterocyclic amines in cooked chicken and determination by LC-MS/MS

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are known to be suspected human carcinogens produced by high-temperature cooking of protein-rich foods such as meat and fish. In the present study, the influence of numerous food condiments on the formation of HCAs in cooked chicken was investigated. Chicken samples were subjected to pan-frying under controlled temperature. The levels of HCAs DMIP, MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, PhIP, harman and norharman were found to be between 0.93 and 27.52 ng g(-1), whereas IQ, MeIQ, AαC, MeAαC, Trp-P-1 and Trp-P-2 were found either below the limit of quantification or not detected in the control sample. Nevertheless, for samples cooked using food condiments, the amounts of HCAs (DMIP, MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx and PhIP) were between 0.14 and 19.57 ng g(-1); harman and norharman were detected at higher concentrations up to 17.77 ng g(-1) while IQ and MeIQ were at levels below the limit of quantification; and AαC, MeAαC, Trp-P-1 and Trp-P-2 were not detected in any of the samples. The outcomes revealed that the formation of HCAs (except harman and norharman) diminished after the addition of food condiments. Edible oil contributed to the highest levels of HCA formation, followed by garlic, paprika, pepper and tomato.

Effect of cooking methods on cholesterol, mineral composition and formation of total heterocyclic aromatic amines in Muscovy drake meat

BACKGROUND

Cholesterol, minerals and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are of great importance in determining meat quality to humans and therefore of concern to meat consumers because of health reasons. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of various cooking methods (grilling, deep frying, pan frying and roasting) on the formation of total HAAs, cholesterol and mineral retention in Muscovy drake breast meat. Total HAAs and cholesterol were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography, while minerals were measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy.

RESULTS

Muscovy drake breast meat cooked by deep frying had the highest content of total HAAs (31.83 ng g(-1)), followed by roasted (30.12 ng g(-1)), pan-fried (29.23 ng g(-1)) and grilled (27.34 ng g(-1)) fillets. The cholesterol content was highest in deep-fried fillets (59.09 mg g(-1)), followed by roasted fillets (58.61 mg g(-1)), while grilling resulted in the lowest cholesterol content (57.00 mg g(-1)). The mineral content was highest in deep-fried samples and lowest in roasted fillets. Magnesium retention was affected by the cooking method and was higher in deep-fried samples (110.57%) than in grilled (97.97%), pan-fried (88.99%) and roasted (78.46%) fillets. Generally, the total HAA, cholesterol and mineral content in cooked Muscovy drake breast meat varied with the cooking method.

CONCLUSION

Moderate consumption of deep-fried Muscovy drake meat should be encouraged, as deep frying increased its cholesterol, total HAA and mineral content compared with the other cooking methods investigated.

Solid phase extraction and ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric identification of carcinogenic/mutagenic heterocyclic amines in cooked camel meat

In the present study, three kinds of camel (Mjahim, Mgatir and Humor) from Saudi Arabia have been studied for heterocyclic amines (HAs) contents in their cooked meat.

Second derivative synchronous fluorimetric method for simultaneous determination of harman and norharman in coffee samples

The simultaneous determination of harman and norharman using second derivative synchronous fluorescence method has been developed based on their natural fluorescence. Due to their similar molecular structures, it is difficult to determine them simultaneously in the mixture using conventional fluorimetry. Overlapping of fluorescence spectra was resolved by using a constant second derivative synchronous fluorimetry. The derivative synchronous spectrum, maintaining a constant difference of Δλ=150 nm between emission and excitation for both the compounds, has been selected for the analysis. The range of application is between 0.182 and 18.2 μg/mL (correlation coefficient, R=0.9982) for harman and between 0.504 and 16.8 μg/mL (correlation coefficient, R=0.9962) for norharman. The recovery ranges of 98.5-101.1% for harman and 97.5-99.1% for norharman from their synthetic mixture was reported. The detection limits are 0.016 μg/mL and 0.038 μg/mL for harman and norharman, respectively. Similarly, the quantitation limit of the two compounds was found to be 0.049 and 0.109 μg/mL, respectively. The method was applied to the simultaneous determination of both compounds in coffee samples with satisfactory results.

Preventing false negatives with high-resolution mass spectrometry: the benzophenone case

Benzophenone (BP) is one of the many contaminants reported as present in foodstuffs due to its migration from food packaging materials. Liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) is acknowledged in the literature as the method of choice for this analysis. However, cases have been reported where the use of this methodology was insufficient to unambiguously confirm the presence of a contaminant. In previous work performed by the authors, the unequivocal identification of BP in packaged foods was not possible even when monitoring two m/z transitions (precursor ion - product ion), since ion ratio errors higher than 20% were obtained. In order to overcome this analytical problem a fast, sensitive and selective liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC/HRMS) methodology has been developed and applied to the analysis of BP in packaged foods. A direct comparison between LC/HRMS and LC/MS/MS data indicated better selectivity when working with LC/HRMS at a resolving power of 50,000 FWHM (full width at half maximum) than when monitoring two m/z transitions by LC/MS/MS. The resolving power used enabled the detection and identification of Harman as the compound impeding the confirmation of BP by LC-MS/MS. Similar quantitative results were obtained by an Orbitrap mass analyser (Exactive™) and a triple quadrupole mass analyser (TSQ Quantum Ultra AM™).