Detection of endogenous boldenone in the entire male horses

Performance assessment of an equine metabolomics model for screening a range of anabolic agents

INTRODUCTION

Despite their ban, Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) are considered as the most important threat for equine doping purposes. In the context of controlling such practices in horse racing, metabolomics has emerged as a promising alternative strategy to study the effect of a substance on metabolism and to discover new relevant biomarkers of effect. Based on the monitoring of 4 metabolomics derived candidate biomarkers in urine, a prediction model to screen for testosterone esters abuse was previously developed. The present work focuses on assessing the robustness of the associated method and define its scope of application.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Several hundred urine samples were selected from 14 different horses of ethically approved administration studies involving various doping agents' (AAS, SARMS, β-agonists, SAID, NSAID) (328 urine samples). In addition, 553 urine samples from untreated horses of doping control population were included in the study. Samples were characterized with the previously described LC-HRMS/MS method, with the objective of assessing both its biological and analytical robustness.

RESULTS

The study concluded that the measurement of the 4 biomarkers involved in the model was fit for purpose. Further, the classification model confirmed its effectiveness in screening for testosterone esters use; and it demonstrated its ability to screen for the misuse of other anabolic agents, allowing the development of a global screening tool dedicated to this class of substances. Finally, the results were compared to a direct screening method targeting anabolic agents demonstrating complementary performances of traditional and omics approaches in the screening of anabolic agents in horses.

LC-HRMS/MS study of the prodrug ciclesonide and its active metabolite desisobutyryl-ciclesonide in plasma after an inhalative administration to horses for doping control purposes

Ciclesonide (CIC) is the first inhaled highly potent corticosteroid that does not cause any cortisol suppression. It has been developed for the treatment of asthma in human and more recently in equine. CIC is the active compound of Aservo® EquiHaler® (Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica GmbH), the pre-filled inhaler generating a medicated mist based on Soft Mist™ technology. This prodrug is rapidly converted to desisobutyryl-ciclesonide (des-CIC), the main pharmacologically active compound. Due to its anti-inflammatory properties, CIC is prohibited for use in horse competitions. To set up an appropriate control, the determination of detection times and screening limits are required. Therefore, a highly sensitive analytical method based on supported liquid extraction (SLE) combined with liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) was developed to detect CIC and its active metabolite des-CIC in plasma. The lower limit of detection of CIC and des-CIC was approximately 1 pg/ml in plasma. After a pilot study conducted on a single horse at the recommended dose (eight actuations twice daily corresponding to 5.5 mg/day for the first 5 days, followed by 12 actuations once daily corresponding to 4.1 mg/day in the last 5 days), the same protocol was applied in the main study using six horses. In all horses, CIC and des-CIC levels were less than 5 and 10 pg/ml, respectively, at 36 h after the end of the administration. The outcome of this risk assessment study should be useful to draw any recommendations for horse competitions.

Doping detection in animals: A review of analytical methodologies published from 1990 to 2019

Despite the impressive innate physical abilities of horses, camels, greyhounds, or pigeons, doping agents might be administered to these animals to improve their performance. To control these illegal practices, anti-doping analytical methodologies have been developed. This review compiles the analytical methods that have been published for the detection of prohibited substances administered to animals involved in sports over 30 years. Relevant papers meeting the search criteria that discussed analytical methods aiming to detect and/or quantify doping substances in animal biological matrices published from 1990 to 2019 were considered. A total of 317 studies were included, of which 298 were related to horses, demonstrating significant advances toward the development of doping detection methods for equine sports. However, analytical methods for the detection of doping agents in sports involving other species are lacking. Due to enhanced accuracy and specificity, chromatographic analysis coupled to mass spectrometry detection is preferred over immunoassays. Regarding biological matrices, blood and urine remain the first choice, although alternative biological matrices, such as hair and feces, have been considered. With the increasing number and type of drugs used as doping agents, the analytes addressed in the published papers are diverse. It is very important to continue to detect and quantify these drugs, recognizing those that are most frequently used, in order to punish the abusers, protect animals' health, and ensure a healthier and genuine competition.

Elucidation of the biosynthetic pathways of boldenone in the equine testis

Boldenone is an anabolic-androgenic steroid that is prohibited in equine sports. Urine from the uncastrated male horse contains boldenone that is thought to be of endogenous origin and thus a threshold ('cut-off') concentration has been adopted internationally for free and conjugated boldenone to help distinguish cases of doping from its natural production. The testis is likely to be a source of boldenone. Qualitative analysis was performed on extracts of equine testicular homogenates (n = 3 horses) incubated non-spiked and in the presence of its potential precursors using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and LC high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Samples were analysed both underivatised and derivatised to increase the certainty of identification. In addition to previously reported endogenous steroids, analysis of non-spiked testicular tissue samples demonstrated the presence of boldenone and boldienone at trace levels in the equine testis. Incubation of homogenates with deuterium or carbon isotope labelled testosterone and androstenedione resulted in the matching stable isotope analogues of boldenone and boldienone being formed. Additionally, deuterium and carbon labelled 2-hydroxyandrostenedione was detected, raising the possibility that this steroid is a biosynthetic intermediate. In conclusion, boldenone and boldienone are naturally present in the equine testis, with the biosynthesis of these steroids arising from the conversion of testosterone and androstenedione. However, additional work employing larger numbers of animals, further enzyme kinetic experiments and pure reference standards for 2-OH androstenedione isomers would be required to better characterize the pathways involved in these transformations.

Monitoring dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in the urine of Thoroughbred geldings for doping control purposes

The use of testosterone and its pro-drugs, such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), is currently regulated in horseracing by the application of international testosterone thresholds. However, additional steroidomic approaches, such as steroid ratios, to distinguish overall adrenal stimulation from drug administrations and an equine biological passport for longitudinal steroid profiling of individual animals could be advantageous in equine doping testing. Thus, DHEA concentrations and related ratios (testosterone [T] to DHEA and DHEA to epitestosterone [E]) were assessed in the reference population by quantitative analysis of 200 post-race gelding urine samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. DHEA concentrations ranged between 0.9 and 136.6 ng/mL (mean 12.8 ng/mL), T:DHEA ratios between 0.06 and 1.85 (mean 0.43), and DHEA:E ratios between 0.21 and 13.56 (mean 2.20). Based on the reference population statistical upper limits of 5.4 for T:DHEA ratio and 48.1 for DHEA:E ratio are proposed with a risk of 1 in 10 000 for a normal outlier exceeding the value. Analysis of post-administration urine samples collected following administrations of DHEA, Equi-Bolic® (a mix of DHEA and pregnenolone) and testosterone propionate to geldings showed that the upper limit for T:DHEA ratio was exceeded following testosterone propionate administration and DHEA:E ratio following DHEA administrations and thus these ratios could be used as additional biomarkers when determining the cause of an atypical testosterone concentration. Additionally, DHEA concentrations and ratios can be used as a starting point to establish reference ranges for an equine biological passport.

Control of Anabolic Hormone Residues in Tissues of Slaughter Animals in Poland During the Period of 2011-2015

INTRODUCTION

Studies of anabolic hormone residues in the tissues of slaughter animals have been carried out in Poland for more than 25 years. During the period of 2011 to 2015, a total of 35 387 samples from different animal species were tested in the National Residue Control Programme for the presence of residues of compounds that cause hormonal effects, as listed in Annex 1 of Directive 96/23/EC.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The research was conducted in the National Reference Laboratory and eight regional laboratories in departments of veterinary hygiene located throughout the country. Urine, muscle tissue, serum, kidney fat, and drinking water were the targeted matrices. Test methods based on instrumental techniques such as gas and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry were applied, as well as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA).

RESULTS

The concentration of detected hormones exceeded the decision limits in 30 samples, the consequence of which was 41 non-compliances with current applicable criteria. The hormones found present pseudo-endogenous (nortestosterone and boldenone) only, while synthetic hormones were not identified.

CONCLUSION

The non-compliant findings constitute a small percentage (0.085%) of the five-year analysis compilation. On this basis the related food produced in Poland can be accepted as safe for human consumption with regard to the hormone residues tested.

Revealing the influence of glucocorticoid treatment on the excretion of anabolic-androgenic steroids in horses through in vitro digestive simulations and an in vivo case study

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are strictly forbidden in equine sports because of their stimulating effect on muscle growth and performance. Nevertheless, low levels of AAS have been found in some horses, untreated with AAS. Glucocorticoids (GC), used as an anti-inflammatory therapy and structurally related to AAS, might play a role in this phenomenon. In order to unravel this possible correlation the influence of glucocorticoid treatment on the excretion of AAS was studied both in vivo and in vitro. In vivo effects were investigated by analysing urine samples collected from a gelding treated with betamethasone. Additionally, multiple in vitro digestion simulations were set up, according to a previously validated protocol, to study the possibility of a direct biotransformation of glucocorticoids to AAS, by the microbiota of the equine hindgut. Urine and in vitro digestion samples were extracted and analysed with UHPLC-MS/MS and UHPLC-Orbitrap-HRMS analytical methods. A significant influence on the urinary excretion of α-testosterone (αT), β-testosterone (βT) and androsta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione (ADD) was seen. αT-concentrations up to 20ng/mL were detected. ADD was not found before treatment but could be detected post-treatment. Cortisone and cortisol also peaked (>30ng/mL) between day 37 and 48 post-treatment. The in vitro digestion results however revealed no direct biotransformation of glucocorticoids to AAS by the microbiota of the equine hindgut. This study shows that a glucocorticoid treatment can disrupt the synthesis and excretion of AAS, not by direct biotransformation upon gastrointestinal digestion, but more likely by influencing the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

In vitro simulation of the equine hindgut as a tool to study the influence of phytosterol consumption on the excretion of anabolic-androgenic steroids in horses

Traditionally, steroids other than testosterone are considered to be synthetic, anabolic steroids. Nevertheless, in stallions, it has been shown that β-Bol can originate from naturally present testosterone. Other precursors, including phytosterols from feed, have been put forward to explain the prevalence of low levels of steroids (including β-Bol and ADD) in urine of mares and geldings. However, the possible biotransformation and identification of the precursors has thus far not been investigated in horses. To study the possible endogenous digestive transformation, in vitro simulations of the horse hindgut were set up, using fecal inocula obtained from eight different horses. The functionality of the in vitro model was confirmed by monitoring the formation of short-chain fatty acids and the consumption of amino acids and carbohydrates throughout the digestion process. In vitro digestion samples were analyzed with a validated UHPLC-MS/MS method. The addition of β-Bol gave rise to the formation of ADD (androsta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione) or αT. Upon addition of ADD to the in vitro digestions, the transformation of ADD to β-Bol was observed and this for all eight horses' inocula, in line with previously obtained in vivo results, again confirming the functionality of the in vitro model. The transformation ratio proved to be inoculum and thus horse dependent. The addition of pure phytosterols (50% β-sitosterol) or phytosterol-rich herbal supplements on the other hand, did not induce the detection of β-Bol, only low concentrations of AED, a testosterone precursor, could be found (0.1 ng/mL). As such, the digestive transformation of ADD could be linked to the detection of β-Bol, and the consumption of phytosterols to low concentrations of AED, but there is no direct link between phytosterols and β-Bol.

Carbon isotope ratios of nandrolone, boldenone, and testosterone preparations seized in Norway compared to those of endogenously produced steroids in a Nordic reference population

Determining the origin of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) that also are produced endogenously in the human body is a major issue in doping control. In some cases, the presence of nandrolone and boldenone metabolites might result from endogenous production. The GC-C-IRMS technique (gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry) enables the carbon isotopic ratio (CIR) to be measured to determine the origin of these metabolites. The aim of this study was to use GC-C-IRMS to determine the δ(13) CVPDB values of seized boldenone and nandrolone preparations to decide if the steroids themselves were depleted in (13) C, compared to what is normally seen in endogenously produced steroids. In addition, several testosterone preparations were analyzed. A total of 69 seized preparations were analyzed. The nandrolone preparations showed δ(13) CVPDB values in the range of -31.5 ‰ to -26.7 ‰. The boldenone preparations showed δ(13) CVPDB values in the range of -32.0 ‰ to -27.8 ‰, and for comparison the testosterone preparations showed δ(13) CVPDB values of -31.0 ‰ to -24.2 ‰. The results showed that the values measured in the nandrolone and boldenone preparations were in the same range as those measured in the testosterone preparations. The study also included measurements of CIR of endogenously produced steroids in a Norwegian/Danish reference population. The δ(13) CVPDB values measured for the endogenous steroids in this population were in the range of -21.7 to -26.8. In general, most of the preparations investigated in this study show (13) C-depleted delta values compared to endogenously produced steroids reflecting a northern European diet.

New potential markers for the detection of boldenone misuse

Boldenone is one of the most frequently detected anabolic androgenic steroids in doping control analysis. Boldenone misuse is commonly detected by the identification of the active drug and its main metabolite, 5β-androst-1-en-17β-ol-3-one (BM1), by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), after previous hydrolysis with β-glucuronidase enzymes, extraction and derivatization steps. However, some cases of endogenous boldenone and BM1 have been reported. Nowadays, when these compounds are detected in urine at low concentrations, isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) analysis is needed to confirm their exogenous origin. The aim of the present study was to identify boldenone metabolites conjugated with sulphate and to evaluate their potential to improve the detection of boldenone misuse in sports. Boldenone was administered to a healthy volunteer and urine samples were collected up to 56h after administration. After a liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate, urine extracts were analysed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) using electrospray ionisation in negative mode by monitoring the transition of m/z 365-350, specific for boldenone sulphate. Boldenone sulphate was identified in the excretion study urine samples and, moreover, another peak with the same transition was observed. Based on the MS/MS behaviour the metabolite was identified as epiboldenone sulphate. The identity was confirmed by isolation of the LC peak, solvolysis and comparison of the retention time and MS/MS spectra with an epiboldenone standard. These sulphated metabolites have not been previously reported in humans and although they account for less than 1% of the administered dose, they were still present in urine when the concentrations of the major metabolites, boldenone and BM1, were at the level of endogenous origin. The sulphated metabolites were also detected in 10 urine samples tested positive to boldenone and BM1 by GC-MS. In order to verify the usefulness of these new metabolites to discriminate between endogenous and exogenous origin of boldenone, four samples containing endogenous boldenone and BM1, confirmed by IRMS, were analysed. In 3 of the 4 samples, neither boldenone sulphate nor epiboldenone sulphate were detected, confirming that these metabolites were mainly detected after exogenous administration of boldenone. In contrast, boldenone sulphate and, in some cases, epiboldenone sulphate were present in samples with low concentrations of exogenous boldenone and BM1. Thus, boldenone and epiboldenone sulphates are additional markers for the exogenous origin of boldenone and they can be used to reduce the number of samples to be analysed by IRMS. In samples with boldenone and BM1 at the concentrations suspicion for endogenous origin, only if boldenone and epiboldenone sulphates are present, further analysis by IRMS will be needed to confirm exogenous origin.

Ex vivo spontaneous generation of 19-norandrostenedione and nandrolone detected in equine plasma and urine

19-Norandrostenedione (NAED) and nandrolone are anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs). Nandrolone was regarded solely as a synthetic AAS until the 1980s when trace concentrations of apparently endogenous nandrolone were detected in urine samples obtained from intact male horses (stallions). Since then, its endogenous origin has been reported in boars and bulls; endogenous NAED and nandrolone have been identified in plasma and urine samples collected from stallions. More recently, however, it was suggested that NAED and nandrolone detected in urine samples from stallions are primarily artifacts due to the analytical procedure. The present study was undertaken to determine whether NAED and nandrolone detected in plasma and urine samples collected from stallions are truly endogenous or artifacts from sample processing. To answer this question, fresh plasma and urine samples from ≥8 stallions were analyzed for the two AASs, soon after collection, by liquid chromatography hyphenated to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). NAED and nandrolone were not detected in fresh plasma samples but detected in the same samples post storage. Concentrations of both AASs increased with storage time, and the increases were greater at a higher storage temperature (37°C versus 4°C, and ambient temperature versus 4°C). Although NAED was detected in some fresh stallion urine samples, its concentration (<407 pg/mL) was far lower (<0.4%) than that in the same samples post storage (at ambient temperature for 15 days). Nandrolone was not detected in most of fresh urine samples but detected in the same samples post storage. Based on these results, it is concluded that all NAED and nandrolone detected in stored plasma samples of stallions and most of them in the stored urine samples are not from endogenous origins but spontaneously generated during sample storage, most likely from spontaneous decarboxylation of androstenedione-19-oic acid and testosterone-19-oic acid. To our knowledge, it is the first time that all NAED and nandrolone detected in plasma of stallions and most of them detected in the urine have been shown to be spontaneously generated in vitro during sample storage. This finding would have significant implications with regard to the regulation of the two steroids in horse racing.

Metabolism of anabolic steroids and their relevance to drug detection in horseracing

The fight against doping in sport using analytical chemistry is a mature area with a history of approximately 100 years in horseracing. In common with human sport, anabolic/androgenic steroids (AASs) are an important group of potential doping agents. Particular issues with their detection are extensive metabolism including both phase I and phase II. A number of the common AASs are also endogenous to the equine. A further issue is the large number of synthetic steroids produced as pharmaceutical products or as 'designer' drugs intended to avoid detection or for the human supplement market. An understanding of the metabolism of AASs is vital to the development of effective detection methods for equine sport. The aim of this paper is to review current knowledge of the metabolism of appropriate steroids, the current approaches to their detection in equine sport and future trends that may affect equine dope testing.

Analysis of androgenic steroids in environmental waters by large-volume injection liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

A new method was developed for the analysis of natural and synthetic androgenic steroids and their selected metabolites in aquatic environmental matrixes using direct large-volume injection (LVI) high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Method accuracy ranged from 87.6 to 108% for analytes with well-matched internal standards. Precision, quantified by relative standard deviation (RSD), was less than 12%. Detection limits for the method ranged from 1.2 to 360 ng/L. The method was demonstrated on a series of 1 h composite wastewater influent samples collected over a day with the purpose of assessing temporal profiles of androgen loads in wastewater. Testosterone, androstenedione, boldenone, and nandrolone were detected in the sample series at concentrations up to 290 ng/L and loads up to 535 mg/h. Boldenone, a synthetic androgen, had a temporal profile that was strongly correlated to testosterone, a natural human androgen, suggesting its source may be endogenous. An analysis of the sample particulate fraction revealed detectable amounts of sorbed testosterone and androstenedione. Androstenedione sorbed to the particulate fraction accounted for an estimated 5 to 7% of the total androstenedione mass.

Determination of (13)C/(12)C ratios of urinary excreted boldenone and its main metabolite 5beta-androst-1-en-17beta-ol-3-one

Boldenone (androsta-1,4-dien-17beta-ol-3-one, Bo) is an anabolic steroid known to have been used in cattle breeding or equine sport as a doping agent for many years. Although not clinically approved for human application, Bo or its main metabolite 5beta-androst-1-en-17beta-ol-3-one (BM1) were detected in several doping control samples. For more than 15 years the possibility of endogenous Bo production in human beings has been discussed. This is a challenging issue for doping control laboratories as Bo belongs to the list of prohibited substances of the World Anti-Doping Agency and therefore the chance for false positive testing is significant. By GC/C/IRMS (gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry) it should be possible to analyze the (13)C/(12)C ratio of either Bo or BM1 and to distinguish whether their source is endogenous or exogenous. Therefore a method was developed to determine the (13)C/(12)C ratios of Bo, BM1, pregnanediol, androsterone, etiocholanolone, and testosterone from a single urine specimen. The validity of the method was ensured by repeated processing of urine fortified with 2-50 ng/mL Bo and BM1. The specificity of the method was ensured by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry determinations. Out of 23 samples investigated throughout the last four years, 11 showed (13)C/(12)C ratios of Bo or BM1 inconsistent with an exogenous origin. Two of these samples were collected from the same athlete within a one-month interval, strongly indicating the chance of endogenous Bo production by this athlete.

Presence and metabolism of endogenous androgenic-anabolic steroid hormones in meat-producing animals: a review

The presence and metabolism of endogenous steroid hormones in meat-producing animals has been the subject of much research over the past 40 years. While significant data are available, no comprehensive review has yet been performed. Species considered in this review are bovine, porcine, ovine, equine, caprine and cervine, while steroid hormones include the androgenic-anabolic steroids testosterone, nandrolone and boldenone, as well as their precursors and metabolites. Information on endogenous steroid hormone concentrations is primarily useful in two ways: (1) in relation to pathological versus 'normal' physiology and (2) in relation to the detection of the illegal abuse of these hormones in residue surveillance programmes. Since the major focus of this review is on the detection of steroids abuse in animal production, the information gathered to date is used to guide future research. A major deficiency in much of the existing published literature is the lack of standardization and formal validation of experimental approach. Key articles are cited that highlight the huge variation in reported steroid concentrations that can result when samples are analysed by different laboratories under different conditions. These deficiencies are in most cases so fundamental that it is difficult to make reliable comparisons between data sets and hence it is currently impossible to recommend definitive detection strategies. Standardization of the experimental approach would need to involve common experimental protocols and collaboratively validated analytical methods. In particular, standardization would need to cover everything from the demographic of the animal population studied, the method of sample collection and storage (especially the need to sample live versus slaughter sampling since the two methods of surveillance have very different requirements, particularly temporally), sample preparation technique (including mode of extraction, hydrolysis and derivatization), the end-point analytical detection technique, validation protocols, and the statistical methods applied to the resulting data. Although efforts are already underway (at HFL and LABERCA) to produce more definitive data and promote communication among the scientific community on this issue, the convening of a formal European Union working party is recommended.

Some aspects of doping and medication control in equine sports

This chapter reviews drug and medication control in equestrian sports and addresses the rules of racing, the technological advances that have been made in drug detection and the importance of metabolism studies in the development of effective drug surveillance programmes. Typical approaches to screening and confirmatory analysis are discussed, as are the quality processes that underpin these procedures. The chapter also addresses four specific topics relevant to equestrian sports: substances controlled by threshold values, the approach adopted recently by European racing authorities to control some therapeutic substances, anabolic steroids in the horse and LC-MS analysis in drug testing in animal sports and metabolism studies. The purpose of discussing these specific topics is to emphasise the importance of research and development and collaboration to further global harmonisation and the development and support of international rules.

Quantitative analysis of biomarkers, drugs and toxins in biological samples by immunoaffinity chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry or tandem mass spectrometry: A focused review of recent applications

Immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC), mass spectrometry and especially tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) represent the most efficient and reliable analytical techniques for specific isolation, unequivocal identification and accurate quantification of numerous natural and synthetic substances in biological samples. This review article focuses on the combined use of these outstanding methodologies in basic and clinical research and in life sciences for the quantitative analysis of low- and high-molecular mass biomarkers, drugs and toxins in urine, plasma or serum samples, in tissue and other biologicals systems published in the last decade. The analytes discussed in some detail include the biomarkers of oxidative stress 15(S)-8-iso-prostaglandin F(2alpha) {15(S)-8-iso-PGF(2alpha)} and 3-nitrotyrosine, the major urinary metabolite of the lipid mediators cysteinyl leukotrienes, i.e., the leukotriene E(4) (LTE(4)), melatonin, and the major collagen type II neoepitope peptide in human urine.

Criteria to distinguish between natural situations and illegal use of boldenone, boldenone esters and boldione in cattle 2. Direct measurement of 17beta-boldenone sulpho-conjugate in calf urine by liquid chromatography--high resolution and tandem mass spectrometry

Boldenone is banned in the European Union (Directive 96/22/EC) as growth promoter for meat producing animals. Boldione (ADD), boldenone and boldenone esters (mainly the undecylenate form) are commercially available as anabolic preparations, either to the destination of human, horse or cattle. Since the late 90s, the natural occurrence of boldenone metabolites has been reported in cattle. According to EU regulation, the unambiguous demonstration of boldenone administration in bovine urine should be provided on the basis of boldenone identification in the corresponding conjugate fraction. An analytical method has been developed and validated according to current standards with main concern to the measurement of intact 17beta-boldenone-sulphate. The analytical procedure included direct extraction-purification of target analyte on octadecylsilyl cartridges and direct detection of phase II metabolite by liquid chromatography (negative electrospray), tandem mass spectrometry (QqQ) or high resolution mass spectrometry (Orbitrap). Decision limit (CCalpha) and detection capability (CCbeta) were respectively 0.2 microg L(-1) and 0.4 microg L(-1) on triple quadrupole and 0.1 microg L(-1) and 0.2 microg L(-1) on hybrid system. The method was successfully applied to the analysis of incurred samples collected in different experiments. 17beta-Boldenone-sulphate was measurable up to 36h after oral administration of boldione, and 30 days after 17beta-boldenone undecylenate intra-muscular injection. This conjugate form was never detected in non-treated animals, confirming its status of definitive candidate marker for boldenone administration in calf.

Modern techniques for the determination of anabolic–androgenic steroid doping in the horse

Control of the use of performance-affecting substances in the horse is critical to the integrity of a wide range of equine sports, with major implications for both animal welfare and revenue streams. One class of medications enjoying particular public notoriety is the anabolic–androgenic steroid group, as highlighted by the recent ‘Big Brown’ affair and Congressional inquiries into the use of steroids in professional sports, including horse racing, in the USA. This review examines the latest developments pertaining to the analytical detection of these substances in equine biological samples and the supporting regulatory environment. Consideration is given to the full variety of sample matrices available, together with modern sample preparative approaches and instrumental techniques. Issues concerning the regulation of endogenous steroids, including thresholds where applicable, are also discussed.

Quantification of 19-nortestosterone sulphate and boldenone sulphate in urine from male horses using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

Following administration of the anabolic steroid 19-nortestosterone or its esters to the horse, a major urinary metabolite is 19-nortestosterone-17beta-sulphate. The detection of 19-nortestosterone in urine from untreated animals has led to it being considered a naturally occurring steroid in the male horse. Recently, we have demonstrated that the majority of the 19-nortestosterone found in extracts of 'normal' urine from male horses arises as an artefact through decarboxylation of the 19-carboxylic acid of testosterone. The aim of this investigation was to establish if direct analysis of 19-nortestosterone-17beta-sulphate by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) had potential for the detection of 19-nortestosterone misuse in the male horse. The high concentrations of sulphate conjugates of the female sex hormones naturally present in male equine urine were overcome by selective hydrolysis of the aryl sulphates using glucuronidase from Helix pomatia; this was shown to have little or no activity for alkyl sulphates such as 19-nortestosterone-17beta-sulphate. The 'free' phenolic steroids were removed by solid-phase extraction (SPE) prior to LC/MS/MS analysis. The method also allowed for the quantification of the sulphate conjugate of boldenone, a further anabolic steroid endogenous in the male equine with potential for abuse in sports. The method was applied to the quantification of these analytes in a population of samples. This paper reports the results of that study along with the development and validation of the LC/MS/MS method. The results indicate that while 19-nortestosterone-17beta-sulphate is present at low levels as an endogenous substance in urine from 'normal' male horses, its use as an effective threshold substance may be viable.

Excretion profile of boldenone in urine of veal calves fed two different milk replacers

The residue profiles of 17alpha-/17beta-boldenone conjugated (17alpha/beta-Bol) and ADD were investigated by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in urine of male veal calves fed two commercial milk replacers, with different content of cholesterol and phytosterols. The urine samples were collected within 4 h after feeding and further from all the animals. Detectable amounts of 17alpha-Bol conjugated were measured in urine collected from all calves, but the concentrations of 17alpha-Bol were higher in urine from calves receiving the milk replacer with the greater amount of phytosterols. During the whole experiment, 17beta-Bol and ADD were never detected in urine samples collected.

Criteria to distinguish between natural situations and illegal use of boldenone, boldenone esters and boldione in cattle 1. Metabolite profiles of boldenone, boldenone esters and boldione in cattle urine

Boldenone is an androgenic steroid that improves the growth and food conversion in food producing animals. In most countries worldwide, this anabolic steroid is forbidden for meat production. Until recently, the control of its illegal use was based either on 17beta-boldenone or 17alpha-boldenone (its main metabolite in cattle) identification in edible tissues, hair, faeces or urine. Recent observations and data tend to demonstrate the natural occurrence (but not ubiquitous) in cattle of these steroids, making the analytical strategy of the control more complicated. We investigated the metabolism of boldenone in cattle after intramuscular and oral treatment of boldenone, boldenone esters and boldione. The central objective was to elucidate the structures of the main metabolites (phase I and phase II) in urine, with main objective to be further in position to compare boldenone urinary profiles of treated and non-treated animals. Nine metabolites have been identified, only four were present whatever the treatment and the administered boldenone source. Nevertheless, all of them have been detected at least once in non-treated animals which did not permit us to use them as biomarkers of an illegal treatment. At last, but not at least, all metabolites were found mainly glucuro-conjugated, and rarely sulfo-conjugated, with the only exception of 17beta-boldenone. Current investigations are showing the absence of 17beta-boldenone sulfoconjugate in non-treated animals; that would permit to distinguish non-treated from treated animals with boldione, boldenone and boldenone esters.

Expression analysis of androgen-responsive genes in the prostate of veal calves treated with anabolic hormones

In order to identify indirect molecular biomarkers of anabolic treatments in veal calves, an animal experiment was performed using two combinations of growth promoters (consisting of boldenone undecylenate and estradiol benzoate, and of testosterone enantate and estradiol benzoate). We selected a set of 12 genes that are known to be androgen responsive in other mammalian species. The expression profile of this set of genes was analysed on prostate samples of veal calves using a real-time RT-PCR approach. For each selected gene the corresponding bovine sequence was obtained and a gene specific real-time assay was optimised and validated. The amplification was shown to be highly specific, linear and efficient. High reproducibility (<1%) and low-test variability (<2.5%) were also been achieved. Messenger RNA levels were quantified in prostate samples, non-parametric analysis of variance showed significant up-regulation of three genes (MAF, ESR1 and AR) and significant down-regulation of four genes (HMGCS1, HPGD, DBI, and LIM) in treated samples when compared with untreated controls. To assess the possibility of identifying hormone-treated animals by molecular means we performed a discriminant analysis that was effective in classifying treated and non-treated samples with an accuracy of 93%. Our results indicate that identification of treatment with steroid hormones in veal calves by means of gene expression analysis is a feasible approach and could be improved increasing both the number of genes and the number of controls analysed.

Detection, quantification and confirmation of anabolic steroids in equine plasma by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry

Anabolic androgenic steroids are related to the male sex hormones and are abused in equine sports. In an effort to deter the abuse of anabolic steroids, a sensitive LC-MS/MS method was developed for detection, quantification and confirmation of eight major anabolic steroids (testosterone, normethandrolone, nandrolone, boldenone, methandrostenolone, tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), trenbolone, and stanozolol) in equine plasma. Formation of solvent adduct ions of the analytes was observed under electrospray ionization (ESI) conditions, and desolvation of the solvent adduct ions by source collision-induced decomposition (CID) increased the abundance of the [M+H]+ ions as well as the multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) signals. ESI (+) and APCI (+) were compared with respect to sensitivity for the analytes and the former provided better sensitivity. The matrix effect on ion suppression or enhancement was evaluated, and was negligible. Confirmation of the analytes was performed using criteria of three ion transitions and LC retention time of each analyte. The limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) was 25 pg/mL. The limit of confirmation (LOC) was 25 pg/mL for boldenone; 50 pg/mL for normethandrolone, nandrolone, and methandrostenolone; and 100 pg/mL for testosterone, THG, trenbolone, and stanozolol. The analytes were evaluated for stability and found to be stable in plasma for 24h at room temperature, 13 days at 4 degrees C, and 34 days at -20 and -70 degrees C. The method was successfully applied to analyses of equine plasma samples for pharmacokinetics study. This method is sensitive and useful for detection, quantification and confirmation of these anabolic steroids in equine plasma.

Endogenous occurrence of some anabolic steroids in swine matrices

Following findings of 17beta-19-nortestosterone (150-200 microg kg(-1)) in pigs of unspecified gender imported into the European Union, a study to determine steroid and hormone levels in swine from six age/gender categories (uncastrated 'old' boars, cryptorchids, one intersex, barrows, gilts and sows) was initiated. Indeed, for some hormones there has been a discussion about their being endo- or exogenous. Tissue and urine samples from swine from each of the six categories were obtained in Belgium, France, the Netherlands and the USA. Samples were analysed in three laboratories. Quantitation was obtained for norandrostenedione, 19-nortestosterone and boldenone. The results give a well-documented overview of the status of the presence of these hormones in swine. The data illustrate that uncastrated 'old' boars produce the highest percentage of 'positive' matrices, followed by the cryptorchids. Concentrations in the matrices of the barrows and the gilts are lower. Also, sow matrices contain low amounts of nor-steroids. Furthermore, urine samples from an intersex pig contains a higher concentration of nortestosterone than sows and can therefore be suspected for illegal use of these hormones. Veterinarians taking samples in pig farms for the analysis of hormones need to be aware of the presence and concentrations of these substances in the different categories.