N-doping TiO2 hollow microspheres with abundant oxygen vacancies for highly photocatalytic nitrogen fixation

Highly selective and active NO reduction to synthesize NH3 based on graphene-substituted phthalocyanine Cu electrocatalysts

Electrocatalytic reduction of nitric oxide (eNORR) has attracted attention due to its dual function of NO removal and NH3 synthesis. A novel carboxylated-graphene supported phthalocyanine Cu catalyst was synthesized and applied in eNORR, achieving an NH3 yield of 471.9 μmol h-1 cm-2 and Faradaic efficiency of 94.07%, better than most catalysts reported.

Fabrication of a Novel PES/CNTs@TiO2 Membrane Combining Photo-Electrocatalysis and Filtration for Organic Pollutant Removal

Membrane filtration has been widely used in wastewater treatment; contaminants attached to the membrane surface led to flux loss and service life reduction. In the present study, a photo-electrocatalysis membrane was fabricated with CNTs@TiO2 deposited on a commercial polyethersulfone (PES) membrane (PES/CNTs@TiO2). XRD and SEM characterization proved that the CNTs@TiO2 composites were successfully fabricated using the one-pot hydrothermal method. Additionally, vacuum filtration was used to distribute the as-prepared powder on the PES membrane. In CNTs@TiO2, TiO2 particles were deposited on the outer layer of CNTs, which benefits light adsorption and photocatalytic reaction. The hydrophilicity, light absorption ability, and electron transfer rate of the PES/CNTs@TiO2 membrane were enhanced compared with the pristine PES membranes. Organic compound removal was improved in the photo-electrocatalysis filtration system with the improvement of 32.41% for methyl orange (MO), 26.24% for methyl blue (MB), 7.86% for sulfamethoxazole (SMZ), and 25.19% for florfenicol (FF), respectively. Moreover, the hydrophilicity and removal rate could be restored after pure water cleaning, demonstrating excellent reusability. The quenching experiment showed that ·OH and ·O2- were the main reactive oxygen species. This work provides a convenient form of photo-electrocatalysis filtration technology using modified commercial membranes, which has great potential for practical application.

Boosted Solar Water Splitting over Direct S-Scheme Sulfur-Deficient ZnIn2S4/1D TiO2 Nanoarrays

The construction of the S-scheme defect-engineered heterojunction (S-DEH) has been regarded as a rising promise to acquire operative carrier separation and electron transport in hybrid nanocatalysts, providing an inspired access to accomplish efficient solar-fuel production and realize eco-friendly energy evolution. Herein, visible-light-responsive sulfur-deficient ZnIn2S4 quantum dots/TiO2 nanoarrays (TAs/SV-ZIS) were fabricated for promoting photocatalytic water splitting (TAs and SV-ZIS stand for TiO2 nanoarrays and sulfur-vacancy ZnIn2S4 quantum dots, respectively). The experimental results indicated that the matched band gap, interfacial chemical bond introduced by defect engineering, and built-in electric field at the heterojunction interface drive the construction of the direct S-DEH system. Under simulated solar irradiation, the optimized hydrogen production rate of TAs/SV-ZIS is 72.475 mmol·h-1·g-1, which is ∼3.9 times than that for pristine TiO2 nanoarrays and ∼2.0 times than that for TAs/ZIS counterparts. The enhanced photocatalytic performance observed in TiO2 nanoarrays modified with ZnIn2S4 quantum dots referred to the improved charge transport, carrier separation efficiency, and extended electron lifetime because of the valid introduction of defect sites on the nanocomposites.

Combination of Broad Light-Absorption Cu9S5 with S,C,N-TiO2: Assessment of Photocatalytic Performance in Nitrogen Fixation Reaction

In the field of solar energy storage, photocatalytic ammonia production is a next-generation technology. The rapid recombination of charges and insignificant utilization of the sunlight spectrum are bottlenecks of effective photocatalytic N2 fixation. The introduction of impurities in the crystal lattice and the development of heterojunctions could effectively segregate carriers and improve the solar-light-harvesting capability, which can boost NH3 generation. Therefore, in this work, three-element doping by S, C, and N was carried out to rectify the photocatalytic feature of TiO2, and then it was combined with a broad-light-absorption Cu9S5 semiconductor. The synthesized S,C,N-doped TiO2/Cu9S5 nanocomposites with a QD size of almost 7.17 nm exhibited outstanding ability in photocatalytic N2 reduction, and the generation of NH3 reached 23 567 μmol L-1 g-1 without sacrificial agents, which was 5.67 and 2.11 folds larger than TiO2 and Cu9S5, respectively. The promoted performance of the nanocomposite was ascribed to doping three elements and the construction of a Z-scheme system, which attains efficacious separation of carriers and supplies a dedicated path for carrier migration. This research not only supports a novel, sustainable, and facile strategy for the synthesis of S,C,N-TiO2/Cu9S5 nanocomposites with inorganic materials and biocompatible characteristics but also provides new insights into the design and construction of TiO2-based materials through nonmetal and low-cost three-elemental doping for photocatalytic nitrogen fixation.

TiO2-based photocatalysts from type-II to S-scheme heterojunction and their applications

Photocatalysis is a promising sustainable technology to remove organic pollution and convert solar energy into chemical energy. Titanium dioxide has drawn extensive attention in this field owing to its high activity under UV light, good chemical stability, large availability, low price and low toxicity. However, the poor quantum efficiency derived from fast electron/hole recombination, the limited utilization of sunlight, and a weak reducing ability still hinder its practical application. Among the modification strategies of TiO2 to enhance its performance, the construction of heterojunctions with other semiconductors is a powerful and versatile way to maximise the separation of photogenerated charge carriers and steer their transport toward enhanced efficiency and selectivity. Here, the research progress and current status of TiO2 modification are reviewed, focusing on heterojunctions. A rapid evolution of the understanding of the different charge transfer mechanisms is witnessed from traditional type II to the recently conceptualised S-scheme. Particular attention is paid to different synthetic approaches and interface engineering methods designed to improve and control the interfacial charge transfer, and several cases of TiO2 heterostructures with metal oxides, metal sulfides and carbon nitride are discussed. The application hotspots of TiO2-based photocatalysts are summarized, including hydrogen generation by water splitting, solar fuel production by CO2 conversion, and the degradation of organic water pollutants. Hints about less studied and emerging processes are also provided. Finally, the main issues and challenges related to the sustainability and scalability of photocatalytic technologies in view of their commercialization are highlighted, outlining future directions of development.

Structurally and surficially activated TiO2 nanomaterials for photochemical reactions

Renewable fuels and environmental remediation are of paramount importance in today's world due to escalating concerns about climate change, pollution, and the finite nature of fossil fuels. Transitioning to sustainable energy sources and addressing environmental pollution has become an urgent necessity. Photocatalysis, particularly harnessing solar energy to drive chemical reactions for environmental remediation and clean fuel production, holds significant promise among emerging technologies. As a benchmark semiconductor in photocatalysis, TiO2 photocatalyst offers an excellent solution for environmental remediation and serves as a key tool in energy conversion and chemical synthesis. Despite its status as the default photocatalyst, TiO2 suffers from drawbacks such as a high recombination rate of charge carriers, low electrical conductivity, and limited absorption in the visible light spectrum. This review provides an in-depth exploration of the fundamental principles of photocatalytic reactions and presents recent advancements in the development of TiO2 photocatalysts. It specifically focuses on strategic approaches aimed at enhancing the performance of TiO2 photocatalysts, including improving visible light absorption for efficient solar energy harvesting, enhancing charge separation and transportation efficiency, and ensuring stability for robust photocatalysis. Additionally, the review delves into the application of photodegradation and photocatalysis, particularly in critical processes such as water splitting, carbon dioxide reduction, nitrogen fixation, hydrogen peroxide generation, and alcohol oxidation. It also highlights the novel use of TiO2 in plastic polymerization and degradation, showcasing its potential for converting plastic waste into valuable chemicals and fuels, thereby offering sustainable waste management solutions. By addressing these essential areas, the review offers valuable insights into the potential of TiO2 photocatalysis for addressing pressing environmental and energy challenges. Furthermore, the review encompasses the application of TiO2 photochromic systems, expanding its scope to include other innovative research and applications. Finally, it addresses the underlying challenges and provides perspectives on the future development of TiO2 photocatalysts. Through addressing these issues and implementing innovative strategies, TiO2 photocatalysis can continue to evolve and play a pivotal role in sustainable energy and environmental applications.

Efficient photocatalytic nitrogen fixation via oxygen vacancies in Zr-MOFs at ambient conditions

Photocatalytic nitrogen fixation is seen to be a potential technology for nitrogen reduction due to its eco-friendliness, low energy consumption, and environmental protection. In this study, photocatalysts with abundant oxygen vacancies (Zr-naphthalene dicarboxylic acid (Zr-NDC) and Zr-phthalic acid (Zr-BDC)) were designed using 1,4-naphthalene dicarboxylic acid (H2NDC) and 1,4-phthalic acid (H2BDC) as ligands. Since the structure of H2NDC includes one extra benzene ring than H2BDC, the charge density differential of the organic ligand is probably altered. The hypothesis is proved by density function theory (DFT) calculation. The abundant oxygen vacancies of the catalyst offer numerous active sites for nitrogen fixation. Concurrently, the process of ligand-metal charge transfer facilitates photo-electron transfer, creating an active center for nitrogen reduction. Additionally, the functionalization of ligand amplifies another pathway for charge transfer, broadening the light absorption range of Metal-organic framework (MOF) and increasing its capacity for nitrogen reduction. In contrast to H2BDC, the benzene ring added in H2NDC structure acts as an electron energy storage tank with a stronger electron density difference favorable for photogenerated electron-hole separation resulting in higher photocatalytic activity in Zr-NDC. The experimental results show that the nitrogen fixation efficiency of Zr-NDC is 163.7 µmol g-1h-1, which is significantly better than that of Zr-BDC (29.3 µmol g-1h-1). This work utilizes cost-effective and non-toxic ingredients to design highly efficient photocatalysts, thereby significantly contributing to the practical implementation of green chemistry principles.

Assessing Exchange-Correlation Functionals for Heterogeneous Catalysis of Nitrogen Species

Increasing interest in the sustainable synthesis of ammonia, nitrates, and urea has led to an increase in studies of catalytic conversion between nitrogen-containing compounds using heterogeneous catalysts. Density functional theory (DFT) is commonly employed to obtain molecular-scale insight into these reactions, but there have been relatively few assessments of the exchange-correlation functionals that are best suited for heterogeneous catalysis of nitrogen compounds. Here, we assess a range of functionals ranging from the generalized gradient approximation (GGA) to the random phase approximation (RPA) for the formation energies of gas-phase nitrogen species, the lattice constants of representative solids from several common classes of catalysts (metals, oxides, and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)), and the adsorption energies of a range of nitrogen-containing intermediates on these materials. The results reveal that the choice of exchange-correlation functional and van der Waals correction can have a surprisingly large effect and that increasing the level of theory does not always improve the accuracy for nitrogen-containing compounds. This suggests that the selection of functionals should be carefully evaluated on the basis of the specific reaction and material being studied.

Mechanocatalytic Synthesis of Ammonia by Titanium Dioxide with Bridge-Oxygen Vacancies: Investigating Mechanism from the Experimental and First-Principle Approach

Mechanochemical ammonia (NH3) synthesis is an emerging mild approach derived from nitrogen (N2) gas and hydrogen (H) source. The gas-liquid phase mechanochemical process utilizes water (H2O), rather than conventional hydrogen (H2) gas, as H sources, thus avoiding carbon dioxide (CO2) emission during H2 production. However, ammonia yield is relatively low to meet practical demand due to huge energy barriers of N2 activation and H2O dissociation. Here, six transition metal oxides (TMO) such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3), copper(II) oxide (CuO), niobium(V) oxide(Nb2O5), zinc oxide (ZnO), and copper(I) oxide (Cu2O) are investigated as catalysts in mechanochemical N2 fixation. Among them, TiO2 shows the best mechanocatalytic effect and the optimum reaction rate constant is 3.6-fold higher than the TMO-free process. The theoretical calculations show that N2 molecules prefer to side-on chemisorb on the mechano-induced bridge-oxygen vacancies in the (101) crystal plane of TiO2 catalyst, while H2O molecules can dissociate on the same sites more easily to provide free H atoms, enabling an alternative-way hydrogeneration process of activated N2 molecules to release NH3 eventually. This work highlights the cost-effective TiO2 mechanocatalyst for ammonia synthesis under mild conditions and proposes a defect-engineering-induced mechanocatalytic mechanism to promote N2 activation and H2O dissociation.

A Solar to Chemical Strategy: Green Hydrogen as a Means, Not an End

Green hydrogen is the key to the chemical industry achieving net zero emissions. The chemical industry is responsible for almost 2% of all CO2 emissions, with half of it coming from the production of simple commodity chemicals, such as NH3, H2O2, methanol, and aniline. Despite electrolysis driven by renewable power sources emerging as the most promising way to supply all the green hydrogen required in the production chain of these chemicals, in this review, it is worth noting that the photocatalytic route may be underestimated and can hold a bright future for this topic. In fact, the production of H2 by photocatalysis still faces important challenges in terms of activity, engineering, and economic feasibility. However, photocatalytic systems can be tailored to directly convert sunlight and water (or other renewable proton sources) directly into chemicals, enabling a solar-to-chemical strategy. Here, a series of recent examples are presented, demonstrating that photocatalysis can be successfully employed to produce the most important commodity chemicals, especially on NH3, H2O2, and chemicals produced by reduction reactions. The replacement of fossil-derived H2 in the synthesis of these chemicals can be disruptive, essentially safeguarding the transition of the chemical industry to a low-carbon economy.

Electron deficient Bi3+δ serves as N2 absorption sites and inhibits carriers recombination to enhance N2 photo-fixation in BiOBr/TiO2 S-scheme heterojunction

Efficient carriers separation and multiple nitrogen (N2) activation sites are essential for N2 photo-fixation. Here, we found that the BiOBr/TiO2 (BBTO) displayed an attractive reversible photochromism (white → grey) due to the generation of electron deficient Bi3+δ, which was produced by the hole trapping of Bi3+ under light irradiation. Interestingly, more Bi3+δ were detected in the BBTO heterojunction than in pure BiOBr, attributing that the hole trapping was promoted by the built-in electric field in the Step scheme (S-scheme) heterojunction. In the BBTO, the electron deficient Bi3+δ enhanced carriers separation and served as the reactive active site to adsorb more N2. Consequently, the BBTO possessed an excellent N2 photo-fixation activity (191 μmol gcat-1 h-1), which was 7.7 and 18 times higher than that of pure BiOBr (24.8 μmol gcat-1 h-1) and TiO2 (10.6 μmol gcat-1 h-1), respectively. Therefore, this work provides a new perspective for enhancing N2 photo-fixation by the electron deficient photocatalysts with S-scheme heterojunction.

TiO2 nanorod arrays@PDA/Ag with biomimetic polydopamine as binary mediators for duplex SERS detection of illegal food dyes

Based on TiO2 nanorod arrays@PDA/Ag (TNRs@PDA/Ag), a better surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) sensor with effective enrichment and enhancement was investigated for duplex SERS detection of illicit food dyes. Biomimetic PDA functions as binary mediators by utilizing the structural characteristics of polydopamine (PDA), which include the conjugated structure and abundant hydrophilic groups. One PDA functioned as an electron transfer mediator to enhance the efficiency of electron transfer, and the other as an enrichment mediator to effectively enrich rhodamine B (RhB) and crystal violet (CV) through hydrogen bonding, π-π stacking, and electrostatic interactions. Individual and duplex detection of illicit food dyes (RhB and CV) was performed using TNRs@PDA/Ag to estimate SERS applications. Their linear equations and limits of detection of 1 nM for RhB and 5 nM for CV were derived. Individual and duplex food colour detection was successfully accomplished even in genuine chili meal with good results. The bifunctional TNRs@PDA/Ag-based highly sensitive and duplex SERS dye detection will have enormous potential for food safety monitoring.

Synergistic Spatial Confining Effect and O Vacancy in WO3 Hollow Sphere for Enhanced N2 Reduction

Visible-light-driven N2 reduction into NH3 in pure H2O provides an energy-saving alternative to the Haber-Bosch process for ammonia synthesizing. However, the thermodynamic stability of N≡N and low water solubility of N2 remain the key bottlenecks. Here, we propose a solution by developing a WO3-x hollow sphere with oxygen vacancies. Experimental analysis reveals that the hollow sphere structure greatly promotes the enrichment of N2 molecules in the inner cavity and facilitates the chemisorption of N2 onto WO3-x-HS. The outer layer's thin shell facilitates the photogenerated charge transfer and the full exposure of O vacancies as active sites. O vacancies exposed on the surface accelerate the activation of N≡N triple bonds. As such, the optimized catalyst shows a NH3 generation rate of 140.08 μmol g-1 h-1, which is 7.94 times higher than the counterpart WO3-bulk.

Comprehensive Insights into the Family of Atomically Thin 2D-Materials for Diverse Photocatalytic Applications

2D materials with their fascinating physiochemical, structural, and electronic properties have attracted researchers and have been used for a variety of applications such as electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, energy storage, magnetoresistance, and sensing. In recent times, 2D materials have gained great momentum in the spectrum of photocatalytic applications such as pollutant degradation, water splitting, CO2 reduction, NH3 production, microbial disinfection, and heavy metal reduction, thanks to their superior properties including visible light responsive band gap, improved charge separation and electron mobility, suppressed charge recombination and high surface reactive sites, and thus enhance the photocatalytic properties rationally as compared to 3D and other low-dimensional materials. In this context, this review spot-lights the family of various 2D materials, their properties and their 2D structure-induced photocatalytic mechanisms while giving an overview on their synthesis methods along with a detailed discussion on their diverse photocatalytic applications. Furthermore, the challenges and the future opportunities are also presented related to the future developments and advancements of 2D materials for the large-scale real-time photocatalytic applications.

Research Progress in Composite Materials for Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation

Ammonia is an essential component of modern chemical products and the building unit of natural life molecules. The Haber-Bosch (H-B) process is mainly used in the ammonia synthesis process in the industry. In this process, nitrogen and hydrogen react to produce ammonia with metal catalysts under high temperatures and pressure. However, the H-B process consumes a lot of energy and simultaneously emits greenhouse gases. In the "double carbon" effect, to promote the combination of photocatalytic technology and artificial nitrogen fixation, the development of green synthetic reactions has been widely discussed. Using an inexhaustible supply of sunlight as a power source, researchers have used photocatalysts to reduce nitrogen to ammonia, which is energy-dense and easy to store and transport. This process completes the conversion from light energy to chemical energy. At the same time, it achieves zero carbon emissions, reducing energy consumption and environmental pollution in industrial ammonia synthesis from the source. The application of photocatalytic technology in the nitrogen cycle has become one of the research hotspots in the new energy field. This article provides a classification of and an introduction to nitrogen-fixing photocatalysts reported in recent years and prospects the future development trends in this field.

On the Selectivity of Simultaneous CO2 and N2 Reduction Using TiO2/Carbon Sphere Photocatalysts Prepared by Microwave Treatment and Mounted on Silica Cloth

This paper presents new photocatalysts obtained by treating carbon spheres (CS) and TiO2 in a microwave reactor at a pressure of 20 atm and a temperature of up to 300 °C for 15 min and then depositing TiO2/CS composites on glass fibre cloths. Such highly CO2-adsorbing photocatalysts showed photoactivity in the simultaneous water-splitting process, generating H2, reducing CO2 to CO and CH4, and reducing N2 to NH3. In addition, calculations of the hydrogen balance involved in all reactions were performed. Adding 1 g of carbon spheres per 1 g of TiO2 maintained the high selectivity of nitrogen fixation at 95.87-99.5%, which was continuously removed from the gas phase into the water as NH4+ ions.

Fabrication of optimal oxygen vacancy amount in P/Ag/Ag2O/Ag3PO4/TiO2 through a green photoreduction process for sustainable H2 evolution under solar light

Defects engineering on photocatalysts such as oxygen vacancies (OVs) is an effective approach for improving photocatalytic hydrogen (H₂) evolution efficiency. In this study, OVs modified P/Ag/Ag₂O/Ag₃PO₄/TiO₂ (PAgT) composite was successfully fabricated via a photoreduction process by controlling the ratio of PAgT to ethanol (16, 12, 8, 6 and 4 g·L^-1) under simulated solar light irradiation for the first time. Characterization methods confirmed the presence of OVs in the modified catalysts. Meanwhile, the OVs amount and their effects on the light absorption ability, charge transfer rate, conduction band and H₂ evolution efficiency of the catalysts were also investigated. The results indicated that the optimal OVs amount endowed OVs-PAgT-12 with the strongest light absorption, the fastest electron transfer rate and suitable band gap for H₂ evolution, leading to the highest H₂ yield (863 μmol·h^-1·g^-1) under solar light irradiation. Moreover, OVs-PAgT-12 exhibited a superior stability during cyclic experiment, indicating its great potential for practical application. Furthermore, a sustainable H₂ evolution process was proposed based on a combination of sustainable bio-ethanol resource, stable OVs-PAgT, abundant solar energy and recyclable methanol. This study would provide new insights into the design of defects modified composite photocatalyst for enhanced solar-to-hydrogen conversion.