Guar gum solutions for improved delivery of iron particles in porous media (part 2): iron transport tests and modeling in radial geometry

In-depth understanding of transport behavior of sulfided nano zerovalent iron/reduced graphene oxide@guar gum slurry: Stability and mobility

Nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI), which has the advantages of small particle size, large specific surface area, and high reactivity, is often injected into contaminated aquifers in the form of slurry. However, the prone to passivation and agglomeration as well as poor stability and mobility of NZVI limit the further application of this technology in fields. Therefore, sulfided NZVI loaded on reduced graphene oxide (S-NZVI/rGO) and guar gum (GG) with shear-thinning properties as stabilizers were used to synthesize S-NZVI/rGO@GG slurries. SEM, TEM, and FT-IR confirmed that the dispersion and anti-passivation of NZVI were optimized in the coupled system. The stability and mobility of the slurry were improved by increasing the GG concentration, enhancing the pH, and decreasing the ionic strength and the presence of Ca2+ ions, respectively. A modified advection-dispersion equation (ADE) was used to simulate the transport experiments considering the strain and physicochemical deposition/release. Meanwhile, colloidal filtration theory (CFT) demonstrated that Brownian motion plays a dominant role in the migration of S-NZVI/rGO@GG slurry, and the maximum migration distance can be increased by appropriately increasing the injection rate. Extended-Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (XDLVO) theory showed that the excellent stability and migration of S-NZVI/rGO@GG slurry mainly came from the GG spatial forces. This study has important implications for the field injection of S-NZVI/rGO@GG slurry. According to the injection parameters, the injection range of S-NZVI/rGO@GG slurry is effectively controlled, which lays the foundation for the promotion of application in actual fields.

Experimental study on in situ remediation of Cr(VI) contaminated groundwater by sulfidated micron zero valent iron stabilized with xanthan gum

Micron zero valent iron (mZVI) was an underground remediation material, which had great application potential to replace nano zero valent iron (nZVI) from the perspective of economic and health benefits. However, mZVI was highly prone to gravitational settling, which limited its wide application for in situ remediation of contaminated groundwater. This paper was devoted to develop an efficient and economical groundwater remediation material based on mZVI, which should possess excellent stability, reactivity, and transportability. Thereby xanthan gum (XG) stabilized and Na₂S₂O₄ sulfidated mZVI (XG-S-mZVI) was synthesized and characterized with SEM, XRD, XPS, and FTIR techniques. In terms of stability, the adsorbed XG and the dispersed XG worked together to resist the sedimentation of S-mZVI. In terms of reactivity, sulfidation enhanced the electron transfer rate and electron selectivity of XG-S-mZVI, thereby improved the reactivity of XG-S-mZVI. The hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) removal rate constant by XG-S-mZVI was determined to be 832.4 times than bare mZVI. In terms of transportability, the transportability of XG-S-mZVI was greatly improved (~80 cm in coarse sand and ~50 cm in medium sand). Straining was the main mechanism of XG-S-mZVI retention in porous media. XG-S-mZVI in situ reactive zone (XG-S-mZVI-IRZ) was only suitable to the media with a grain size larger than 0.25 mm. This study could provide theoretical support and guidance for the implementation of IRZ technology based on mZVI.

Transport and retention of porous silicon-coated zero-valent iron in saturated porous media

Porous silicon-coated zero-valent iron (Fe⁰@p-SiO₂) is a promising material for in-situ contaminated groundwater remediation. However, investigations of factors that affect the transport of Fe⁰@p-SiO₂ remain incomplete. In the present study, Fe⁰@p-SiO₂ composites were prepared by a SiO₂-coated technology, and a series of column experiments were conducted to examine the effects of media size, ionic strength, and injection velocity and concentration on retention and transport in saturated porous media. Results showed that the obtained Fe⁰@p-SiO₂ is a core-shell composite with zero-valent iron as the core and porous silicon as the shell. Media size, injection velocity, Fe⁰ concentration, and ionic strength had a significant impact on the transport of Fe⁰@p-SiO₂. Fe⁰@p-SiO₂ effluent concentrations decreased with a smaller media size. Increasing initial particle concentration and ionic strength led to a decrease in particle transport. High particle retention was observed near the middle of the column, especially with high injection concentration. That was also observable in the condition of lower injection velocity or finer media. The results indicated that two transport behaviors during particles transport, which were "agglomeration-straining" and "detachment-re-migration". Moreover, the dominated mechanisms for Fe⁰@p-SiO₂ transport and retention in saturated porous media are hydrodynamic dispersion and interception. Given the results, in practical engineering applications, proper injection velocity and concentration should be selected depending on the pollution status of groundwater and the geochemical environment to ensure an effective in-situ reaction zone.

Porous media transport of iron nanoparticles for site remediation application: A review of lab scale column study, transport modelling and field-scale application

Injection of surface modified zero valent iron nanoparticles for in situ remediation of soil, contaminated with an array of pollutants has attracted great attention due to the high reactivity of zero valent iron towards a broad range of contaminants, its cost effectiveness, minimal physical disruption and low toxicity. The effectiveness of this technology relies on the stability and mobility of injected iron nanoparticles. Hence the development of a modelling tool capable of predicting nZVI transport is indispensable. This review provides state of the art knowledge on the mobility of iron nanoparticles in porous media, mechanisms involved in subsurface retention of nZVI based on continuum models and field scale application. Special attention is given to the identification of the influential parameters controlling the transport potential of iron nanoparticles and the available numerical models for the simulation of laboratory scale transport data.

Controlled treatment of a high velocity anisotropic aquifer model contaminated by hexachlorocyclohexanes

Xanthan gels were assessed to control the reductive dechlorination of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and trichlorobenzenes (TCBs) in a strong permeability contrast and high velocity sedimentary aquifer. An alkaline degradation was selected because of the low cost of NaOH and Ca(OH)₂. The rheology of alkaline xanthan gels and their ability to deliver alkalinity homogeneously, while maintaining the latter, were studied. Whereas the xanthan gels behaved like non-Newtonian shear-thinning fluids, alkalinity and Ca(OH)₂ microparticles had detrimental effects, yet, the latter decreased with the shear-rate. Breakthrough curves for the NaOH and Ca(OH)₂ in xanthan solutions, carried out in the lowest permeability soil (9.9 μm²), demonstrated the excellent transmission of alkalinity, while moderate pressure gradients were applied. Injection velocities ranging from 1.8 to 3.8 m h^-1 are anticipated in the field, given the permeability range from 9.9 to 848.7 μm². Despite a permeability contrast of 8.7 in an anisotropic aquifer model, the NaOH and the Ca(OH)₂ both in xanthan gels spread only 5- and 7-times faster in the higher permeability zone, demonstrating that the delivery was enhanced. Moreover, the alkaline gels which were injected into a high permeability layer under lateral water flow, showed a persistent blocking effect and longevity (timescale of weeks), in contrast to the alkaline solution in absence of xanthan. Kinetics of alkaline dechlorination carried out on the historically contaminated soil, using the Ca(OH)₂ suspension in xanthan solution, showed that HCHs were converted in TCBs by dehydrodechlorination, whereas the latter were then degraded by reductive hydrogenolysis. Degradation kinetics were achieved within 30 h for the major and most reactive fraction of HCHs.

Effects of non-reducible dissolved solutes on reductive dechlorination of trichloroethylene by ball milled zero valent irons

Non-reducible solution anions have been well recognized to affect reactivity of ZVI in dechlorinating chlorinated hydrocarbons. However, their effects and corresponding functional mechanisms on electron efficiency (ε_e) of ZVI remain unclear. In this study, mechanochemically modified microscale sulfidated and unsulfidated ZVI particles (i.e., S-mZVI^bm and mZVI^bm) and trichloroethylene (TCE) were used as model particles and contaminant to explore such effects. PO₄^3- as a corrosion promoter enhanced initial dechlorination rate by both particles. However, its passivating role as a surface complex agent became significant at the later stage of dechlorination by mZVI^bm, while sulfidation alleviated this effect without inhibition of dechlorination. Compared with enhancing dechlorination, PO₄^3- promoted hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) to a higher extent, decreasing ε_e for both particles by 17-73 %. HCO₃- negligibly affected dechlorination by both particles, while elevated HER. Thus, HCO₃- [5 mM] decreased ε_e for S-mZVI^bm and mZVI^bm by 1.9 % and 22 %. Different from PO₄^3- and HCO₃-, Cl- and SO₄^2- showed no significant effects on dechlorination, HER, and therefore ε_e for both particles. These results imply that even though some co-existing anions (i.e., PO₄^3- and HCO₃-) acting as corrosion promoters could improve the dechlorination by ZVIs, they would lead to decreased ε_e and shortened particle reactive lifetime.

A Large-Scale 3D Study on Transport of Humic Acid-Coated Goethite Nanoparticles for Aquifer Remediation

Humic acid-coated goethite nanoparticles (HA-GoeNPs) have been recently proposed as an effective reagent for the in situ nanoremediation of contaminated aquifers. However, the effective dosage of these particles has been studied only at laboratory scale to date. This study investigates the possibility of using HA-GoeNPs in remediation of real field sites by mimicking the injection and transport of HA-GoeNPs under realistic conditions. To this purpose, a three-dimensional (3D) transport experiment was conducted in a large-scale container representing a heterogeneous unconfined aquifer. Monitoring data, including particle size distribution, total iron (Fetot) content and turbidity measurements, revealed a good subsurface mobility of the HA-GoeNP suspension, especially within the higher permeability zones. A radius of influence of 2 m was achieved, proving that HA-GoeNPs delivery is feasible for aquifer restoration. A flow and transport model of the container was built using the numerical code Micro and Nanoparticle transport Model in 3D geometries (MNM3D) to predict the particle behavior during the experiment. The agreement between modeling and experimental results validated the capability of the model to reproduce the HA-GoeNP transport in a 3D heterogeneous aquifer. Such result confirms MNM3D as a valuable tool to support the design of field-scale applications of goethite-based nanoremediation.

Injection of Zerovalent Iron Gels for Aquifer Nanoremediation: Lab Experiments and Modeling

One of the main technical problems faced during field-scale injections of iron microparticles (mZVI) for groundwater nanoremediation is related to their poor colloidal stability and mobility in porous media. In this study, a shear-thinning gel, composed of a mixture of two environmentally friendly biopolymers, i.e., guar gum and xanthan gum, was employed to overcome these limitations. The slurry rheology and particle mobility were characterized by column transport tests. Then, a radial transport experiment was performed to mimic the particle delivery in more realistic conditions. The gel, even at a low polymeric content (1.75 g/L), proved effective in enhancing the mobility of high concentrated mZVI suspensions (20 g/L) in field-like conditions. The high radius of influence (73 cm) and homogeneous iron distribution were achieved by maintaining a low injection overpressure (<0.4 bar). Based only on the information derived from column tests, the MNMs 2018 software (Micro- and Nanoparticle transport, filtration, and clogging Model-Suite) was able to predict the particle distribution and pressure build-up measured in the radial domain. Experimental and simulated results showed good agreement, thus proving that a simplified experimental-modeling procedure based on 1D column tests could be used to effectively upscale the slurry behavior to more representative scales, e.g., radial domains.

Human health risk assessment for nanoparticle-contaminated aquifer systems

Nanosized particles (NPs), such as TiO₂, Silver, graphene NPs, nanoscale zero-valent iron, carbon nanotubes, etc., are increasingly used in industrial processes, and releases at production plants and from landfills are likely scenarios for the next years. As a consequence, appropriate procedures and tools to quantify the risks for human health associated to these releases are needed. The tiered approach of the standard ASTM procedure (ASTM-E2081-00) is today the most applied for human health risk assessment at sites contaminated by chemical substances, but it cannot be directly applied to nanoparticles: NP transport along migration pathways follows mechanisms significantly different from those of chemicals; moreover, also toxicity indicators (namely, reference dose and slope factor) are NP-specific. In this work a risk assessment approach modified for NPs is proposed, with a specific application at Tier 2 to migration in groundwater. The standard ASTM equations are modified to include NP-specific transport mechanisms. NPs in natural environments are typically characterized by a heterogeneous set of NPs having different size, shape, coating, etc. (all properties having a significant impact on both mobility and toxicity). To take into account this heterogeneity, the proposed approach divides the NP population into classes, each having specific transport and toxicity properties, and simulates them as independent species. The approach is finally applied to a test case simulating the release of heterogeneous Silver NPs from a landfill. The results show that taking into account the size-dependent mobility of the particles provides a more accurate result compared to the direct application of the standard ASTM procedure. In particular, the latter tends to underestimate the overall toxic risk associated to the nP release.

Guar gum and its composites as potential materials for diverse applications: A review

Naturally occurring polymers are currently of prime importance among which polysaccharides occupies superior position due to their easy availability, eco- friendly and non-toxic nature. Guar gum, one of the naturally occurring polymer, is a galactomannan acquired by ground endosperm of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus or Cyamopsis psoraloides. It belongs to the family leguminosae. Presence of large number of hydroxyl groups increases its H- bonding ability when dissolved in water that enhance the viscosity and gelling properties of the guar gum solution. Based upon these properties, guar gum is used in several industries such as textile, food, petrochemical, mining and paper for varied applications. It is used as suspending, emulsifying, gelling and stabilising agent in the conventional dosage forms. Last few decades have marked the increase in development of various composites of guar gum that have intrinsic utilization in various fields. Immobilization of guar gum with the others not only enhances its properties but also enriches its utilization in numerous fields for diverse applications such as water purification, drug delivery, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries, etc. Guar gum derivatives are found to have therapeutic importance in certain physiological disorders also. In this review article, we have summarized various possible composites of guar gum and their most probable applications in different fields.

Ecofriendly nanotechnologies and nanomaterials for environmental applications: Key issue and consensus recommendations for sustainable and ecosafe nanoremediation

The use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) for environmental remediation, known as nanoremediation, represents a challenging and innovative solution, ensuring a quick and efficient removal of pollutants from contaminated sites. Although the growing interest in nanotechnological solutions for pollution remediation, with significant economic investment worldwide, environmental and human risk assessment associated with the use of ENMs is still a matter of debate and nanoremediation is seen yet as an emerging technology. Innovative nanotechnologies applied to water and soil remediation suffer for a proper environmental impact scenario which is limiting the development of specific regulatory measures and the exploitation at European level. The present paper summarizes the findings from the workshop: "Ecofriendly Nanotechnology: state of the art, future perspectives and ecotoxicological evaluation of nanoremediation applied to contaminated sediments and soils" convened during the Biannual ECOtoxicology Meeting 2016 (BECOME) held in Livorno (Italy). Several topics have been discussed and, starting from current state of the art of nanoremediation, which represents a breakthrough in pollution control, the following recommendations have been proposed: (i) ecosafety has to be a priority feature of ENMs intended for nanoremediation; ii) predictive safety assessment of ENMs for environmental remediation is mandatory; (iii) greener, sustainable and innovative nano-structured materials should be further supported; (iii) those ENMs that meet the highest standards of environmental safety will support industrial competitiveness, innovation and sustainability. The workshop aims to favour environmental safety and industrial competitiveness by providing tools and modus operandi for the valorization of public and private investments.

Continuum-based models and concepts for the transport of nanoparticles in saturated porous media: A state-of-the-science review

Environmental applications of nanoparticles (NP) increasingly result in widespread NP distribution within porous media where they are subject to various concurrent transport mechanisms including irreversible deposition, attachment/detachment (equilibrium or kinetic), agglomeration, physical straining, site-blocking, ripening, and size exclusion. Fundamental research in NP transport is typically conducted at small scale, and theoretical mechanistic modeling of particle transport in porous media faces challenges when considering the simultaneous effects of transport mechanisms. Continuum modeling approaches, in contrast, are scalable across various scales ranging from column experiments to aquifer. They have also been able to successfully describe the simultaneous occurrence of various transport mechanisms of NP in porous media such as blocking/straining or agglomeration/deposition/detachment. However, the diversity of model equations developed by different authors and the lack of effective approaches for their validation present obstacles to the successful robust application of these models for describing or predicting NP transport phenomena. This review aims to describe consistently all the important NP transport mechanisms along with their representative mathematical continuum models as found in the current scientific literature. Detailed characterizations of each transport phenomenon in regards to their manifestation in the column experiment outcomes, i.e., breakthrough curve (BTC) and residual concentration profile (RCP), are presented to facilitate future interpretations of BTCs and RCPs. The review highlights two NP transport mechanisms, agglomeration and size exclusion, which are potentially of great importance in controlling the fate and transport of NP in the subsurface media yet have been widely neglected in many existing modeling studies. A critical limitation of the continuum modeling approach is the number of parameters used upon application to larger scales and when a series of transport mechanisms are involved. We investigate the use of simplifying assumptions, such as the equilibrium assumption, in modeling the attachment/detachment mechanisms within a continuum modelling framework. While acknowledging criticisms about the use of this assumption for NP deposition on a mechanistic (process) basis, we found that its use as a description of dynamic deposition behavior in a continuum model yields broadly similar results to those arising from a kinetic model. Furthermore, we show that in two dimensional (2-D) continuum models the modeling efficiency based on the Akaike information criterion (AIC) is enhanced for equilibrium vs kinetic with no significant reduction in model performance. This is because fewer parameters are needed for the equilibrium model compared to the kinetic model. Two major transport regimes are identified in the transport of NP within porous media. The first regime is characterized by higher particle-surface attachment affinity than particle-particle attachment affinity, and operative transport mechanisms of physicochemical filtration, blocking, and physical retention. The second regime is characterized by the domination of particle-particle attachment tendency over particle-surface affinity. In this regime although physicochemical filtration as well as straining may still be operative, ripening is predominant together with agglomeration and further subsequent retention. In both regimes careful assessment of NP fate and transport is necessary since certain combinations of concurrent transport phenomena leading to large migration distances are possible in either case.

A 3-dimensional micro- and nanoparticle transport and filtration model (MNM3D) applied to the migration of carbon-based nanomaterials in porous media

Engineered nanoparticles (NPs) in the environment can act both as contaminants, when they are unintentionally released, and as remediation agents when injected on purpose at contaminated sites. In this work two carbon-based NPs are considered, namely CARBO-IRON®, a new material developed for contaminated site remediation, and single layer graphene oxide (SLGO), a potential contaminant of the next future. Understanding and modeling the transport and deposition of such NPs in aquifer systems is a key aspect in both cases, and numerical models capable to simulate NP transport in groundwater in complex 3D scenarios are necessary. To this aim, this work proposes a modeling approach based on modified advection-dispersion-deposition equations accounting for the coupled influence of flow velocity and ionic strength on particle transport. A new modeling tool (MNM3D - Micro and Nanoparticle transport Model in 3D geometries) is presented for the simulation of NPs injection and transport in 3D scenarios. MNM3D is the result of the integration of the numerical code MNMs (Micro and Nanoparticle transport, filtration and clogging Model - Suite) in the well-known transport model RT3D (Clement et al., 1998). The injection in field-like conditions of CARBO-IRON® (20g/l) amended by CMC (4g/l) in a 2D vertical tank (0.7×1.0×0.12m) was simulated using MNM3D, and compared to experimental results under the same conditions. Column transport tests of SLGO at a concentration (10mg/l) representative of a possible spill of SLGO-containing waste water were performed at different values of ionic strength (0.1 to 35mM), evidencing a strong dependence of SLGO transport on IS, and a reversible blocking deposition. The experimental data were fitted using the numerical code MNMs and the ionic strength-dependent transport was up-scaled for a full scale 3D simulation of SLGO release and long-term transport in a heterogeneous aquifer. MNM3D showed to potentially represent a valid tool for the prediction of the long-term behavior of engineered nanoparticles released in the environment (e.g. from landfills), and the preliminary design of in situ aquifer remediation through injection of suspensions of reactive NPs.

Agar agar-stabilized milled zerovalent iron particles for in situ groundwater remediation

Submicron-scale milled zerovalent iron (milled ZVI) particles produced by grinding macroscopic raw materials could provide a cost-effective alternative to nanoscale zerovalent iron (nZVI) particles for in situ degradation of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons in groundwater. However, the aggregation and settling of bare milled ZVI particles from suspension presents a significant obstacle to their in situ application for groundwater remediation. In our investigations we reduced the rapid aggregation and settling rate of bare milled ZVI particles from suspension by stabilization with a "green" agar agar polymer. The transport potential of stabilized milled ZVI particle suspensions in a diverse array of natural heterogeneous porous media was evaluated in a series of well-controlled laboratory column experiments. The impact of agar agar on trichloroethene (TCE) removal by milled ZVI particles was assessed in laboratory-scale batch reactors. The use of agar agar significantly enhanced the transport of milled ZVI particles in all of the investigated porous media. Reactivity tests showed that the agar agar-stabilized milled ZVI particles were reactive towards TCE, but that their reactivity was an order of magnitude less than that of bare, non-stabilized milled ZVI particles. Our results suggest that milled ZVI particles could be used as an alternative to nZVI particles as their potential for emplacement into contaminated zone, their reactivity, and expected longevity are beneficial for in situ groundwater remediation.

Assessing the capacity of zero valent iron nanofluids to remediate NAPL-polluted porous media

A variety of aqueous suspensions (nanofluids) of zero-valent nano-particles (nZVI) are prepared by wet chemistry techniques, their stability and longevity is evaluated by physic-chemical methods of characterization, and their reactivity toward the dechlorination of per-chloro-ethylene (PCE) is examined with tests in batch reactors. For assessing the mobility, longevity and reactivity of nZVI suspensions (nanofluids), under flow-through conditions, visualization multiphase flow and transport tests are performed on a glass-etched pore network. The nZVI breakthrough curves are constructed by measuring the transient variation of the iron concentration in the effluent with atomic absorption spectroscopy. The capacity of nZVI to remediate the bulk phase of PCE is quantified by detecting the mass loss rate of PCE ganglia trapped in glass-etched pore networks during the continuous injection of nZVI suspension or pure water. The nZVI injection in porous media is simulated as an advection- dispersion process by accounting for the attachment/detachment of nanoparticles on the pore-walls, and describing the kinetics of PCE dissolution and reaction by 1st order equations. Visualization experiments reveal that the gradual elimination of PCE ganglia by the injected nZVI is associated with the preferential "erosion" of the upstream interfacial regions. The step controlling the overall process kinetics might be either (i) the enhanced PCE dissolution or (ii) the direct reaction of bulk PCE with the nZVI deposited upon the ganglia interfaces. Inverse modeling of the experiments under the simplifying assumption of one active mechanism indicates that the estimated kinetic coefficients are increasing functions of the flow rate.

Transport and retention of xanthan gum-stabilized microscale zero-valent iron particles in saturated porous media

Microscale zero valent iron (mZVI) is a promising material for in-situ contaminated groundwater remediation. However, its usefulness has been usually inhibited by mZVI particles' low mobility in saturated porous media for sedimentation and deposition. In our study, laboratory experiments, including sedimentation studies, rheological measurements and transport tests, were conducted to investigate the feasibility of xanthan gum (XG) being used as a coating agent for mZVI particle stabilization. In addition, the effects of XG concentration, flow rate, grain diameter and water chemistry on XG-coated mZVI (XG-mZVI) particle mobility were explored by analyzing its breakthrough curves and retention profiles. It was demonstrated that XG worked efficiently to enhance the suspension stability and mobility of mZVI particles through the porous media as a shear thinning fluid, especially at a higher concentration level (3 g/L). The results of the column study showed that the mobility of XG-mZVI particles increased with an increasing flow rate and larger grain diameter. At the highest flow rate (2.30 × 10(-3) m/s) within the coarsest porous media (0.8-1.2 mm), 86.52% of the XG-mZVI flowed through the column. At the lowest flow rate (0.97 × 10(-4) m/s) within the finest porous media (0.3-0.6 mm), the retention was dramatically strengthened, with only 48.22% of the particles flowing through the column. The XG-mZVI particles appeared to be easily trapped at the beginning of the column especially at a low flow rate. In terms of two representative water chemistry parameters (ion strength and pH value), no significant influence on XG-mZVI particle mobility was observed. The experimental results suggested that straining was the primary mechanism of XG-mZVI retention under saturated condition. Given the above results, the specific site-related conditions should be taken into consideration for the design of a successful delivery system to achieve a compromise between maximizing the radius of influence of the injection and minimizing the injection pressure.

Probing effects of polymer adsorption in colloidal particle suspensions by light scattering as relevant for the aquatic environment: An overview

Modification of particle surfaces by adsorption of polymers is a process that governs particle behavior in aqueous environmental systems. The present article briefly reviews the current understanding of the adsorption mechanisms and the properties of the resulting layers, and it discusses two environmentally relevant cases of particle modification by polymers. In particular, the discussion focuses on the usefulness of methods based on light scattering to probe such adsorbed layers together with the resulting properties of the particle suspensions, and it highlights advantages and disadvantages of these techniques. Measurement of the electrophoretic mobility allows to follow the development of the adsorption layer and to characterize the charge of the modified particles. At saturation, the surface charge is governed by the charge of the adsorbed film. Dynamic light scattering provides information on the film thickness and on the behavior of the modified suspensions. The charge and the structure of the adsorbed layer influence the stability of the particles, as well as the applicability of the classical theory of Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek (DLVO). This fundamental knowledge is presented in the light of environmental systems and its significance for applied systems is underlined. In particular, the article discusses two examples of environmental processes involving adsorption of polymers, namely, the modification of particles by natural adsorption of humic substances and the tailoring of surface properties of iron-based particles used to remediate contaminated aquifers.

Pressure-controlled injection of guar gum stabilized microscale zerovalent iron for groundwater remediation

The paper reports a pilot injection test of microsized zerovalent iron (mZVI) dispersed in a guar gum shear thinning solution. The test was performed in the framework of the EU research project AQUAREHAB in a site in Belgium contaminated by chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons (CAHs). The field application was aimed to overcome those critical aspects which hinder mZVI field injection, mainly due to the colloidal instability of ZVI-based suspensions. The iron slurry properties (iron particles size and concentration, polymeric stabilizer type and concentration, slurry viscosity) were designed in the laboratory based on several tests (reactivity tests towards contaminants, sedimentation tests and rheological measurements). The particles were delivered into the aquifer through an injection well specifically designed for controlled-pressure delivery (approximately 10 bars). The well characteristics and the critical pressure of the aquifer (i.e. the injection pressure above which fracturing occurs) were assessed via two innovative injection step rate tests, one performed with water and the other one with guar gum. Based on laboratory and field preliminary tests, a flow regime at the threshold between permeation and preferential flow was selected for mZVI delivery, as a compromise between the desired homogeneous distribution of the mZVI around the injection point (ensured by permeation flow) and the fast and effective injection of the slurry (guaranteed by high discharge rates and injection pressure, resulting in the generation of preferential flow paths). A monitoring setup was designed and installed for the real-time monitoring of relevant parameters during injection, and for a fast determination of the spatial mZVI distribution after injection via non-invasive magnetic susceptibility measurements.

Monitoring the injection of microscale zerovalent iron particles for groundwater remediation by means of complex electrical conductivity imaging

The injection of microscale zerovalent iron (mZVI) particles for groundwater remediation has received much interest in recent years. However, to date, monitoring of mZVI particle injection is based on chemical analysis of groundwater and soil samples and thus might be limited in its spatiotemporal resolution. To overcome this deficiency, in this study, we investigate the application of complex electrical conductivity imaging, a geophysical method, to monitor the high-pressure injection of mZVI in a field-scale application. The resulting electrical images revealed an increase in the induced electrical polarization (∼20%), upon delivery of ZVI into the targeted area, due to the accumulation of metallic surfaces at which the polarization takes place. Furthermore, larger changes (>50%) occurred in shallow sediments, a few meters away from the injection, suggesting the migration of particles through preferential flowpaths. Correlation of the electrical response and geochemical data, in particular the analysis of recovered cores from drilling after the injection, confirmed the migration of particles (and stabilizing solution) to shallow areas through fractures formed during the injection. Hence, our results demonstrate the suitability of the complex conductivity imaging method to monitor the transport of mZVI during subsurface amendment in quasi real-time.