Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles based cancer theranostics: A double edge sword to fight against cancer

Enhanced siRNA delivery with novel smart chitosan-based formulations

This study aims to develop an innovative multifunctional and dual responsive drug formulation for precise siRNA delivery to breast cancer sites, addressing the challenges posed by conventional cancer treatments which often result in adverse side effects due to their non-specific nature. The formulation made by incorporating gold coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Au-SPIONs) into chitosan microspheres, which were subsequently loaded with siRNA. Comprehensive characterization, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) confirmed the formulation's favourable morphology, particle size distribution, chemical composition, and stability, indicating its strong potential for effective siRNA drug delivery applications. The developed formulation demonstrated siRNA encapsulation efficiencies ranging from 27.4 % to 88.6 % and loading capacity from 0.291 % to 1.59 %, these values particularly higher for medium molecular weight chitosan. These results were compared across different formulations, showing that variations in chitosan type and crosslinker concentration significantly influenced encapsulation efficiency and drug release profiles. Additionally, our results were compared to previous studies on chitosan microspheres encapsulating organic drugs and siRNA, where the developed system demonstrated similar encapsulation and release properties.. The type of chitosan and the choice of crosslinker significantly influenced the drug release patterns. Diverse release profiles across batches highlighted the necessity for precise formulation control. Incorporating SPIONs into chitosan microspheres presents a promising strategy for magnetically driven, site-specific drug delivery. The dual pH-responsive and magnetic properties enable rapid and targeted siRNA release, leveraging the acidic tumor microenvironment as an internal stimulus in addition to external magnetic stimuli. This novel combination of SPIONs, chitosan microspheres, and siRNA encapsulation represents a new approach for targeted drug delivery. While further research is needed to refine and optimize this approach, our study provides a proof of concept for advancing targeted cancer therapies.

Toxicity of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles on retinoblastoma mitochondria

PURPOSE

Retinoblastoma (RB) is one of the most important cancers in children with a higher rate of prevalence in developing countries. Despite different approaches to the treatment of RB, it seems necessary to discover a new approach to its treatment. Today, mitochondria are recognised as an important target in the treatment of cancer. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have been studied by researchers due to their important biological effects.

METHODS

In this study, the effects of SPIONs on mitochondria isolated from Y79 retinoblastoma cells were investigated.

RESULTS

The results showed that SPIONs were able to increase the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and subsequently damage the mitochondrial membrane and release cytochrome c a as one of the important pro-apoptotic proteins of RB mitochondria. Furthermore, the results indicated a decrease in cell viability and an increase in caspase-3 activity in Y79 retinoblastoma cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These events can lead to the killing of cancerous mitochondria. Our results suggest that SPIONs can cause mitochondrial dysfunction and death in RB mitochondria.

How Magnetic Composites are Effective Anticancer Therapeutics? A Comprehensive Review of the Literature

Chemotherapy is the most prominent route in cancer therapy for prolonging the lifespan of cancer patients. However, its non-target specificity and the resulting off-target cytotoxicities have been reported. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies using magnetic nanocomposites (MNCs) for magnetothermal chemotherapy may potentially improve the therapeutic outcome by increasing the target selectivity. In this review, magnetic hyperthermia therapy and magnetic targeting using drug-loaded MNCs are revisited, focusing on magnetism, the fabrication and structures of magnetic nanoparticles, surface modifications, biocompatible coating, shape, size, and other important physicochemical properties of MNCs, along with the parameters of the hyperthermia therapy and external magnetic field. Due to the limited drug-loading capacity and low biocompatibility, the use of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) as drug delivery system has lost traction. In contrast, MNCs show higher biocompatibility, multifunctional physicochemical properties, high drug encapsulation, and multi-stages of controlled release for localized synergistic chemo-thermotherapy. Further, combining various forms of magnetic cores and pH-sensitive coating agents can generate a more robust pH, magneto, and thermo-responsive drug delivery system. Thus, MNCs are ideal candidate as smart and remotely guided drug delivery system due to a) their magneto effects and guide-ability by the external magnetic fields, b) on-demand drug release performance, and c) thermo-chemosensitization under an applied alternating magnetic field where the tumor is selectively incinerated without harming surrounding non-tumor tissues. Given the important effects of synthesis methods, surface modifications, and coating of MNCs on their anticancer properties, we reviewed the most recent studies on magnetic hyperthermia, targeted drug delivery systems in cancer therapy, and magnetothermal chemotherapy to provide insights on the current development of MNC-based anticancer nanocarrier.

Dual-Stimuli-Sensitive Smart Hydrogels Containing Magnetic Nanoparticles as Antitumor Local Drug Delivery Systems-Synthesis and Characterization

The aim of this study was to develop an innovative, dual-stimuli-responsive smart hydrogel local drug delivery system (LDDS), potentially useful as an injectable simultaneous chemotherapy and magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) antitumor treatment device. The hydrogels were based on a biocompatible and biodegradable poly(ε-caprolactone-co-rac-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone-co-rac-lactide) (PCLA-PEG-PCLA, PCLA) triblock copolymer, synthesized via ring-opening polymerization (ROP) in the presence of a zirconium(IV) acetylacetonate (Zr(acac)4) catalyst. The PCLA copolymers were successfully synthesized and characterized using NMR and GPC techniques. Furthermore, the gel-forming and rheological properties of the resulting hydrogels were thoroughly investigated, and the optimal synthesis conditions were determined. The coprecipitation method was applied to create magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) with a low diameter and a narrow size distribution. The magnetic properties of the MIONs were close to superparamagnetic upon TEM, DLS, and VSM analysis. The particle suspension placed in an alternating magnetic field (AMF) of the appropriate parameters showed a rapid increase in temperature to the values desired for hyperthermia. The MIONs/hydrogel matrices were evaluated for paclitaxel (PTX) release in vitro. The release was prolonged and well controlled, displaying close to zero-order kinetics; the drug release mechanism was found to be anomalous. Furthermore, it was found that the simulated hyperthermia conditions had no effect on the release kinetics. As a result, the synthesized smart hydrogels were discovered to be a promising antitumor LDDS, allowing simultaneous chemotherapy and hyperthermia treatment.

Hybrid Magnetic Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the major public health problems worldwide. Despite the advances in cancer therapy, it remains a challenge due to the low specificity of treatment and the development of multidrug resistance mechanisms. To overcome these drawbacks, several drug delivery nanosystems have been investigated, among them, magnetic nanoparticles (MNP), especially superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION), which have been applied for treating cancer. MNPs have the ability to be guided to the tumor microenvironment through an external applied magnetic field. Furthermore, in the presence of an alternating magnetic field (AMF) this nanocarrier can transform electromagnetic energy in heat (above 42 °C) through Néel and Brown relaxation, which makes it applicable for hyperthermia treatment. However, the low chemical and physical stability of MNPs makes their coating necessary. Thus, lipid-based nanoparticles, especially liposomes, have been used to encapsulate MNPs to improve their stability and enable their use as a cancer treatment. This review addresses the main features that make MNPs applicable for treating cancer and the most recent research in the nanomedicine field using hybrid magnetic lipid-based nanoparticles for this purpose.

Role of Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) Nanocomposites in Advanced Biomedical Applications: A State-of-the-Art Review

Nanomaterials have demonstrated a wide range of applications and recently, novel biomedical studies are devoted to improving the functionality and effectivity of traditional and unmodified systems, either drug carriers and common scaffolds for tissue engineering or advanced hydrogels for wound healing purposes. In this regard, metal oxide nanoparticles show great potential as versatile tools in biomedical science. In particular, iron oxide nanoparticles with different shape and sizes hold outstanding physiochemical characteristics, such as high specific area and porous structure that make them idoneous nanomaterials to be used in diverse aspects of medicine and biological systems. Moreover, due to the high thermal stability and mechanical strength of Fe₂O₃, they have been combined with several polymers and employed for various nano-treatments for specific human diseases. This review is focused on summarizing the applications of Fe₂O₃-based nanocomposites in the biomedical field, including nanocarriers for drug delivery, tissue engineering, and wound healing. Additionally, their structure, magnetic properties, biocompatibility, and toxicity will be discussed.

Systematic Identification of Genomic Markers for Guiding Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Cervical Cancer Based on Translational Bioinformatics

Purpose

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (MNP) drug delivery system is a novel promising therapeutic option for cancer treatment. Material issues such as fabrication and functionalized modification have been investigated; however, pharmacologic mechanisms of bare MNPs inside cancer cells remain obscure. This study aimed to explore a systems pharmacology approach to understand the reaction of the whole cell to MNPs and suggest drug selection in MNP delivery systems to exert synergetic or additive anti-cancer effects.

Methods

HeLa and SiHa cell lines were used to estimate the properties of bare MNPs in cervical cancer through 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and enzyme activity assays and cellular fluorescence imaging. A systems pharmacology approach was utilized by combining bioinformatics data mining with clinical data analysis and without a predefined hypothesis. Key genes of the MNP onco-pharmacologic mechanism in cervical cancer were identified and further validated through transcriptome analysis with quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR).

Results

Low cytotoxic activity and cell internalization of MNP in HeLa and SiHa cells were observed. Lysosomal function was found to be impaired after MNP treatment. Protein tyrosine kinase 2 beta (PTK2B), liprin-alpha-4 (PPFIA4), mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 7 (SMAD7), and interleukin (IL) 1B were identified as key genes relevant for MNP pharmacology, clinical features, somatic mutation, and immune infiltration. The four key genes also exhibited significant correlations with the lysosome gene set. The qRT-PCR results showed significant alterations in the expression of the four key genes after MNP treatment in HeLa and SiHa cells.

Conclusion

Our research suggests that treatment of bare MNPs in HeLa and SiHa cells induced significant expression changes in PTK2B, PPFIA4, SMAD7, and IL1B, which play crucial roles in cervical cancer development and progression. Interactions of the key genes with specific anti-cancer drugs must be considered in the rational design of MNP drug delivery systems.

Synthesis of Novel Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA)-Coated Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) for the Delivery of Paclitaxel with Enhanced In Vitro Anti-Proliferative Activity on A549 Lung Cancer Cells

The application of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) as a nanomedicine for Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (NSCLC) can provide effective delivery of anticancer drugs with minimal side-effects. SPIONs have the flexibility to be modified to achieve enhanced oading of hydrophobic anticancer drugs such as paclitaxel (PTX). The purpose of this study was to synthesize novel trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)-coated SPIONs loaded with PTX to enhance the anti-proliferative activity of PTX. CLA-coated PTX-SPIONs with a particle size and zeta potential of 96.5 ± 0.6 nm and −27.3 ± 1.9 mV, respectively, were synthesized. The superparamagnetism of the CLA-coated PTX-SPIONs was confirmed, with saturation magnetization of 60 emu/g and 29 Oe coercivity. CLA-coated PTX-SPIONs had a drug loading efficiency of 98.5% and demonstrated sustained site-specific in vitro release of PTX over 24 h (i.e., 94% at pH 6.8 mimicking the tumor microenvironment). Enhanced anti-proliferative activity was also observed with the CLA-coated PTX-SPIONs against a lung adenocarcinoma (A549) cell line after 72 h, with a recorded cell viability of 17.1%. The CLA-coated PTX-SPIONs demonstrated enhanced suppression of A549 cell proliferation compared to pristine PTX, thus suggesting potential application of the nanomedicine as an effective site-specific delivery system for enhanced therapeutic activity in NSCLC therapy.

Theranostic applications of stimulus-responsive systems based on Fe2O3

According to the interaction of nanoparticles with biological systems, enthusiasm for nanotechnology in biomedical applications has been developed in the past decades. Fe2O3 nanoparticles, as the most stable iron oxide, have special merits that make them useful widely for detecting diseases, therapy, drug delivery, and monitoring the therapeutic process. This review presents the fabrication methods of Fe2O3-based materials and their photocatalytic and magnetic properties. Then, we highlight the application of Fe2O3-based nanoparticles in diagnosis and imaging, different therapy methods, and finally, stimulus-responsive systems, such as pH-responsive, magnetic-responsive, redox-responsive, and enzyme-responsive, with an emphasis on cancer treatment. In addition, the potential of Fe2O3 to combine diagnosis and therapy within a single particle called theranostic agent will be discussed.

Occupational risk of nano-biomaterials: Assessment of nano-enabled magnetite contrast agent using the BIORIMA Decision Support System

The assessment of the safety of nano-biomedical products for patients is an essential prerequisite for their market authorization. However, it is also required to ensure the safety of the workers who may be unintentionally exposed to the nano-biomaterials (NBMs) in these medical applications during their synthesis, formulation into products and end-of-life processing and also of the medical professionals (e.g., nurses, doctors, dentists) using the products for treating patients. There is only a handful of workplace risk assessments focussing on NBMs used in medical applications. Our goal is to contribute to increasing the knowledge in this area by assessing the occupational risks of magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles coated with PLGA-b-PEG-COOH used as contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by applying the software-based Decision Support System (DSS) which was developed in the EU H2020 project BIORIMA. The occupational risk assessment was performed according to regulatory requirements and using state-of-the-art models for hazard and exposure assessment, which are part of the DSS. Exposure scenarios for each life cycle stage were developed using data from literature, inputs from partnering industries and results of a questionnaire distributed to healthcare professionals, i.e., physicians, nurses, technicians working with contrast agents for MRI. Exposure concentrations were obtained either from predictive exposure models or monitoring campaigns designed specifically for this study. Derived No-Effect Levels (DNELs) were calculated by means of the APROBA tool starting from in vivo hazard data from literature. The exposure estimates/measurements and the DNELs were used to perform probabilistic risk characterisation for the formulated exposure scenarios, including uncertainty analysis. The obtained results revealed negligible risks for workers along the life cycle of magnetite NBMs used as contrast agent for the diagnosis of tumour cells in all exposure scenarios except in one when risk is considered acceptable after the adoption of specific risk management measures. The study also demonstrated the added value of using the BIORIMA DSS for quantification and communication of occupational risks of nano-biomedical applications and the associated uncertainties.

Preclinical Cancer Theranostics—From Nanomaterials to Clinic: The Missing Link

Nanomaterials with cancer‐imaging and therapeutic properties have emerged as the principal focus of nanotheranostics. The past decade has experienced a significant increase in research in the design, formulation, and preclinical and clinical trials of theranostic nanosystems. However, current theranostic nanoformulations have yet to be approved by the FDA for clinical use. Consequently, the present review focuses on the importance of the careful examination of the in vivo preclinical status of specific nanotheranostic materials as a prerequisite for their clinical translation. The scope of coverage is structured according to all of the major organic, inorganic, 2D, and hybrid nanotheranostic materials and their in vivo preclinical status. The therapeutic advantages and limitations of these materials in animal models are considered and the various strategies to enhance the biocompatibility of theranostic nanoparticles are summarized.

Nanomedicine for Neurodegenerative Disorders: Focus on Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases

Neurodegenerative disorders involve the slow and gradual degeneration of axons and neurons in the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in abnormalities in cellular function and eventual cellular demise. Patients with these disorders succumb to the high medical costs and the disruption of their normal lives. Current therapeutics employed for treating these diseases are deemed palliative. Hence, a treatment strategy that targets the disease's cause, not just the symptoms exhibited, is desired. The synergistic use of nanomedicine and gene therapy to effectively target the causative mutated gene/s in the CNS disease progression could provide the much-needed impetus in this battle against these diseases. This review focuses on Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, the gene/s and proteins responsible for the damage and death of neurons, and the importance of nanomedicine as a potential treatment strategy. Multiple genes were identified in this regard, each presenting with various mutations. Hence, genome-wide sequencing is essential for specific treatment in patients. While a cure is yet to be achieved, genomic studies form the basis for creating a highly efficacious nanotherapeutic that can eradicate these dreaded diseases. Thus, nanomedicine can lead the way in helping millions of people worldwide to eventually lead a better life.

Using Stock-Flow Diagrams to Visualize Theranostic Approaches to Solid Tumors in Personalized Nanomedicine

Personalized nanomedicine has rapidly evolved over the past decade to tailor the diagnosis and treatment of several diseases to the individual characteristics of each patient. In oncology, iron oxide nano-biomaterials (NBMs) have become a promising biomedical product in targeted drug delivery as well as in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as a contrast agent and magnetic hyperthermia. The combination of diagnosis and therapy in a single nano-enabled product (so-called theranostic agent) in the personalized nanomedicine has been investigated so far mostly in terms of local events, causes-effects, and mutual relationships. However, this approach could fail in capturing the overall complexity of a system, whereas systemic approaches can be used to study the organization of phenomena in terms of dynamic configurations, independent of the nature, type, or spatial and temporal scale of the elements of the system. In medicine, complex descriptions of diseases and their evolution are daily assessed in clinical settings, which can be thus considered as complex systems exhibiting self-organizing and non-linear features, to be investigated through the identification of dynamic feedback-driven behaviors. In this study, a Systems Thinking (ST) approach is proposed to represent the complexity of the theranostic modalities in the context of the personalized nanomedicine through the setting up of a stock-flow diagram. Specifically, the interconnections between the administration of magnetite NBMs for diagnosis and therapy of tumors are fully identified, emphasizing the role of the feedback loops. The presented approach has revealed its suitability for further application in the medical field. In particular, the obtained stock-flow diagram can be adapted for improving the future knowledge of complex systems in personalized nanomedicine as well as in other nanosafety areas.

Biopolymer and Biomaterial Conjugated Iron Oxide Nanomaterials as Prostate Cancer Theranostic Agents: A Comprehensive Review

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common malignancy in men and the leading cause of death for men all over the world. Early diagnosis is the key to start treatment at an early stage of PCa and to reduce the death toll. Generally, PCa expresses characteristic morphologic features and serum biomarkers; however, early diagnosis is challenging due to its heterogeneity and long-term indolent phase in the early stage. Following positive diagnosis, PCa patients receive conventional treatments including surgery, radiation therapy, androgen deprivation therapy, focal therapy, and chemotherapy to enhance survival time and alleviate PCa-related complications. However, these treatment strategies have both short and long-term side effects, notably impotence, urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunctions, and recurrence of cancer. These limitations warrant the quest for novel PCa theranostic agents with robust diagnostic and therapeutic potentials to lessen the burden of PCa-related suffering. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have recently drawn attention for their symmetrical usage in the diagnosis and treatment of several cancer types. Here, we performed a systematic search in four popular online databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science) for the articles regarding PCa and IONPs. Published literature confirmed that the surface modification of IONPs with biopolymers and diagnostic biomarkers improved the early diagnosis of PCa, even in the metastatic stage with reliable accuracy and sensitivity. Furthermore, fine-tuning of IONPs with biopolymers, nucleic acids, anticancer drugs, and bioactive compounds can improve the therapeutic efficacy of these anticancer agents against PCa. This review covers the symmetrical use of IONPs in the diagnosis and treatment of PCa, investigates their biocompatibility, and examines their potential as PCa theranostic agents.

Revisiting inorganic nanoparticles as promising therapeutic agents: A paradigm shift in oncological theranostics

Cancer remains a global health problem largely due to a lack of effective therapies. Major cancer management strategies include chemotherapy, surgical resection, and radiation. Unfortunately, these strategies have a number of limitations, such as non-specific side effects, uneven delivery of the drugs, and lack of proper monitoring technology. Inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) are considered promising agents in treating and tracing cancer due to their unique physicochemical properties such as the controlled release of drugs, bioavailability, biocompatibility, stability, and large surface area. Also, they enhance the solubility of hydrophobic drugs, prolong their circulation time, prevent undesired off-targeting and subsequent side effects, making them efficient particles in cancer theranostics. Promising inorganic-NPs include gold, selenium, silica, and oxide NPs. Further, several techniques are used to modify the surface of inorganic-NPs, making them more efficient for the effective transport of therapeutic cargos to overcome cellular barriers. Thus, inorganic-NPs function effectively, surmounting the intrinsic drawbacks of traditional organic NPs. This mini-review summarizes the significant inorganic-NPs, their properties, surface modifications, cellular uptake, and bio-distributions, along with their potential use in cancer theranostics. We also discuss the promises and challenges faced during the inorganic-NPs mediated therapeutic approach for cancer and these particles' status in the clinical setting.

Cellular SPION Uptake and Toxicity in Various Head and Neck Cancer Cell Lines

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) feature distinct magnetic properties that make them useful and effective tools for various diagnostic, therapeutic and theranostic applications. In particular, their use in magnetic drug targeting (MDT) promises to be an effective approach for the treatment of various diseases such as cancer. At the cellular level, SPION uptake, along with SPION-mediated toxicity, represents the most important prerequisite for successful application. Thus, the present study determines SPION uptake, toxicity and biocompatibility in human head and neck tumor cell lines of the tongue, pharynx and salivary gland. Using magnetic susceptibility measurements, microscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, flow cytometry, and plasma coagulation, we analyzed the magnetic properties, cellular uptake and biocompatibility of two different SPION types in the presence and absence of external magnetic fields. Incubation of cells with lauric acid and human serum albumin-coated nanoparticles (SPION^LA-HSA) resulted in substantial particle uptake with low cytotoxicity. In contrast, uptake of lauric acid-coated nanoparticles (SPION^LA) was substantially increased but accompanied by higher toxicity. The presence of an external magnetic field significantly increased cellular uptake of both particles, although cytotoxicity was not significantly increased in any of the cell lines. SPIONs coated with lauric acid and/or human serum albumin show different patterns of uptake and toxicity in response to an external magnetic field. Consequently, the results indicate the potential use of SPIONs as vehicles for MDT in head and neck cancer.

Tailoring Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Efficient Cellular Internalization and Endosomal Escape

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) have been widely explored for biomedical applications due to their high biocompatibility, surface-coating versatility, and superparamagnetic properties. Upon exposure to an external magnetic field, IONs can be precisely directed to a region of interest and serve as exceptional delivery vehicles and cellular markers. However, the design of nanocarriers that achieve an efficient endocytic uptake, escape lysosomal degradation, and perform precise intracellular functions is still a challenge for their application in translational medicine. This review highlights several aspects that mediate the activation of the endosomal pathways, as well as the different properties that govern endosomal escape and nuclear transfection of magnetic IONs. In particular, we review a variety of ION surface modification alternatives that have emerged for facilitating their endocytic uptake and their timely escape from endosomes, with special emphasis on how these can be manipulated for the rational design of cell-penetrating vehicles. Moreover, additional modifications for enhancing nuclear transfection are also included in the design of therapeutic vehicles that must overcome this barrier. Understanding these mechanisms opens new perspectives in the strategic development of vehicles for cell tracking, cell imaging and the targeted intracellular delivery of drugs and gene therapy sequences and vectors.

New insight and future perspective of mesothelin-targeted agents in nuclear medicine

Purpose

The aim of this review is to summarize the main applications of mesothelin-targeting agents in the diagnosis of different types of cancers with a brief mention of nuclear magnetic resonance.

Methods

The articles taken into account were selected from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Sciences, including research articles and abstracts that deal with radioimmunotherapy and new tracers for nuclear medicine and radiodiagnosis. Articles that are not in English have been excluded.

Results

Mesothelin-targeting agents were the subject of the selected articles in which tracers as 64Cu-DOTA-11-25mAb anti MSLN, 111In-MORAb-009-CHX-A″, 89Zr-MMOT0530A, 111In-amatuximab, 99mTc-A1, 89Zr-AMA, 89Zr-amatuximab, 64Cu-amatuximab, 89Zr-labeled MMOT0530A and 89Zr-B3 found application in detection of malignancies that overexpressed mesothelin. Only one article approached magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) diagnosis using superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles linked to anti-mesothelin antibodies. The tracers proved to be highly sensitive in detecting mesothelin positive cells. 89Zr-labeled MMOT0530A could also be used to predict the suitability of patients to radioimmunotherapy.

Conclusions

Radiolabeled anti-mesothelin antibodies could be crucial as a treatment tool and for predicting the eligibility and the response of the patient to radioimmunotherapy through the study of the expression grade of mesothelin. They can be a relevant tool for pancreatic adenocarcinoma, lung cancer, human epidermoid carcinoma, ovarian cancer, malignant mesothelioma in which mesothelin is widely expressed.

Smart Hydrogels - Synthetic Stimuli-Responsive Antitumor Drug Release Systems

Among modern drug formulations, stimuli-responsive hydrogels also called "smart hydrogels" deserve a special attention. The basic feature of this system is the ability to change their mechanical properties, swelling ability, hydrophilicity, bioactive molecules permeability, etc., influenced by various stimuli, such as temperature, pH, electromagnetic radiation, magnetic field and biological factors. Therefore, stimuli-responsive matrices can be potentially used in tissue engineering, cell cultures and technology of innovative drug delivery systems (DDSs), releasing the active substances under the control of internal or external stimuli. Moreover, smart hydrogels can be used as injectable DDSs, due to gel-sol transition connected with in situ cross-linking process. Innovative smart hydrogel DDSs can be utilized as matrices for targeted therapy, which enhances the effectiveness of tumor chemotherapy and subsequently limits systemic toxicity. External stimulus sensitivity allows remote control over the drug release profile and gel formation. On the other hand, internal factors provide drg accumulation in tumor tissue and reduce the concentration of active drug form in healthy tissue. In this report, we summarise the basic knowledge and chemical strategies for the synthetic smart hydrogel DDSs applied in antitumor therapy.

HER-2/neu and MYC gene silencing in breast cancer: therapeutic potential and advancement in nonviral nanocarrier systems

Globally, breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality among women, with approximately 1.4 million new cases diagnosed annually. Associated genetic perturbations are emerging in the face of intense scientific enquiry, facilitating its classification, prognostication and treatment. RNAi, utilizing siRNA, is a powerful treatment strategy to silence disease-causing genes. However, therapeutic siRNA instability and poor cellular uptake have limited its clinical application, necessitating the use of nanocarriers. In this review, we highlight the RNAi mechanism, HER-2/neu and MYC as breast cancer gene targets, and nonviral nanocarriers as potentially safe and efficient delivery systems.

Comparing the Effects of Intracellular and Extracellular Magnetic Hyperthermia on the Viability of BxPC-3 Cells

Magnetic hyperthermia involves the use of iron oxide nanoparticles to generate heat in tumours following stimulation with alternating magnetic fields. In recent times, this treatment has undergone numerous clinical trials in various solid malignancies and subsequently achieved clinical approval to treat glioblastoma and prostate cancer in 2011 and 2018, respectively. However, despite recent clinical advances, many questions remain with regard to the underlying mechanisms involved in this therapy. One such query is whether intracellular or extracellular nanoparticles are necessary for treatment efficacy. Herein, we compare the effects of intracellular and extracellular magnetic hyperthermia in BxPC-3 cells to determine the differences in efficacy between both. Extracellular magnetic hyperthermia at temperatures between 40–42.5 °C could induce significant levels of necrosis in these cells, whereas intracellular magnetic hyperthermia resulted in no change in viability. This led to a discussion on the overall relevance of intracellular nanoparticles to the efficacy of magnetic hyperthermia therapy.

New Frontiers in Molecular Imaging with Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs): Efficacy, Toxicity, and Future Applications

Supermagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) are nanoparticles that have an iron oxide core and a functionalized shell. SPIONs have recently raised much interest in the scientific community, given their exciting potential diagnostic and theragnostic applications. The possibility to modify their surface and the characteristics of their core make SPIONs a specific contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging but also an intriguing family of tracer for nuclear medicine. An example is 68Ga-radiolabeled bombesin-conjugated to superparamagnetic nanoparticles coated with trimethyl chitosan that is selective for the gastrin-releasing peptide receptors. These receptors are expressed by several human cancer cells such as breast and prostate neoplasia. Since the coating does not interfere with the properties of the molecules bounded to the shell, it has been proposed to link SPIONs with antibodies. SPIONs can be used also to monitor the biodistribution of mesenchymal stromal cells and take place in various applications. The aim of this review of literature is to analyze the diagnostic aspect of SPIONs in magnetic resonance imaging and in nuclear medicine, with a particular focus on sentinel lymph node applications. Moreover, it is taken into account the possible toxicity and the effects on human physiology to determine the SPIONs' safety.

An Insight into Advanced Approaches for Photosensitizer Optimization in Endodontics-A Critical Review

Apical periodontitis is a biofilm-mediated disease; therefore, an antimicrobial approach is essential to cure or prevent its development. In the quest for efficient strategies to achieve this objective, antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) has emerged as an alternative to classical endodontic irrigation solutions and antibiotics. The aim of the present critical review is to summarize the available evidence on photosensitizers (PSs) which has been confirmed in numerous studies from diverse areas combined with several antimicrobial strategies, as well as emerging options in order to optimize their properties and effects that might be translational and useful in the near future in basic endodontic research. Published data notably support the need for continuing the search for an ideal endodontic photosensitizer, that is, one which acts as an excellent antimicrobial agent without causing toxicity to the human host cells or presenting the risk of tooth discoloration. The current literature on experimental studies mainly relies on assessment of mixed disinfection protocols, combining approaches which are already available with aPDT as an adjunct therapy. In this review, several approaches concerning aPDT efficiency are appraised, such as the use of bacteriophages, biopolymers, drug and light delivery systems, efflux pump inhibitors, negative pressure systems, and peptides. The authors also analyzed their combination with other approaches for aPDT improvement, such as sonodynamic therapy. All of the aforementioned techniques have already been tested, and we highlight the biological challenges of each formulation, predicting that the collected information may encourage the development of other effective photoactive materials, in addition to being useful in endodontic basic research. Moreover, special attention is dedicated to studies on detailed conditions, aPDT features with a focus on PS enhancer strategies, and the respective final antimicrobial outcomes. From all the mentioned approaches, the two which are most widely discussed and which show the most promising outcomes for endodontic purposes are drug delivery systems (with strong development in nanoparticles) and PS solubilizers.

Inorganic nanomaterials for chemo/photothermal therapy: a promising horizon on effective cancer treatment

During the last few decades, nanotechnology has established many essential applications in the biomedical field and in particular for cancer therapy. Not only can nanodelivery systems address the shortcomings of conventional chemotherapy such as limited stability, non-specific biodistribution and targeting, poor water solubility, low therapeutic indices, and severe toxic side effects, but some of them can also provide simultaneous combination of therapies and diagnostics. Among the various therapies, the combination of chemo- and photothermal therapy (CT-PTT) has demonstrated synergistic therapeutic efficacies with minimal side effects in several preclinical studies. In this regard, inorganic nanostructures have been of special interest for CT-PTT, owing to their high thermal conversion efficiency, application in bio-imaging, versatility, and ease of synthesis and surface modification. In addition to being used as the first type of CT-PTT agents, they also include the most novel CT-PTT systems as the potentials of new inorganic nanomaterials are being more and more discovered. Considering the variety of inorganic nanostructures introduced for CT-PTT applications, enormous effort is needed to perform translational research on the most promising nanomaterials and to comprehensively evaluate the potentials of newly introduced ones in preclinical studies. This review provides an overview of most novel strategies used to employ inorganic nanostructures for cancer CT-PTT as well as cancer imaging and discusses current challenges and future perspectives in this area.

Evaluation of DNA interaction, genotoxicity and oxidative stress induced by iron oxide nanoparticles both in vitro and in vivo: attenuation by thymoquinone

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are known to induce cytotoxicity in various cancer cell lines through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, the studies on its potential to induce toxicity in normal cell lines and in vivo system are limited and ambiguity still exists. Additionally, small molecules are known to interact with the DNA and cause damage to the DNA. The present study is designed to evaluate the potential interaction of IONPs with DNA along with their other toxicological effects and subsequent attenuation by thymoquinone both in vitro (primary lymphocytes) and in vivo (Wistar rats). IONPs were characterized by TEM, SEM-EDS, and XRD. The results from DNA interaction studies showed that IONPs formed a complex with DNA and also got intercalated between the base pairs of the DNA. The decrease in percent cell viability of rat’s lymphocytes was observed along with an increase in ROS generation in a dose-dependent manner (50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 μg/ml of IONPs). The genetic damage in in vivo might be due to the generation of ROS as depletion in anti-enzymatic activity was observed along with an increase in lipid peroxidation in a dose–dependent manner (25, 50, 100 mg/kg of IONPs). Interestingly, supplementation of thymoquinone in combination with IONPs has significantly (P < 0.05) attenuated the genetic and oxidative damage in a dose-dependent manner both in vitro and in vivo. It can be concluded that thymoquinone has the potential to attenuate the oxidative stress and genetic toxicity in vitro and in vivo.

Advances in Therapeutic Implications of Inorganic Drug Delivery Nano-Platforms for Cancer

Numerous nanoparticles drug delivery systems for therapeutic implications in cancer treatment are in preclinical development as conventional chemotherapy has several drawbacks. A chemotherapeutic approach requires high doses of chemotherapeutic agents with low bioavailability, non-specific targeting, and above all, development of multiple drug resistance. In recent years, inorganic nano-drug delivery platforms (NDDPs; with a metal core) have emerged as potential chemotherapeutic systems in oncology. One of the major goals of developing inorganic NDDPs is to effectively address the targeted anti-cancer drug(s) delivery related problems by carrying the therapeutic agents to desired tumors sites. In this current review, we delve into summarizing the recent developments in targeted release of anti-cancer drugs loaded in inorganic NDDPs such as mesoporous silica nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, layered double hydroxides, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and calcium phosphate nanoparticles together with highlighting their therapeutic performance at tumor sites.

Revisiting Current Photoactive Materials for Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy

Microbial infection is a severe concern, requiring the use of significant amounts of antimicrobials/biocides, not only in the hospital setting, but also in other environments. The increasing use of antimicrobial drugs and the rapid adaptability of microorganisms to these agents, have contributed to a sharp increase of antimicrobial resistance. It is obvious that the development of new strategies to combat planktonic and biofilm-embedded microorganisms is required. Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) is being recognized as an effective method to inactivate a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including those resistant to conventional antimicrobials. In the last few years, the development and biological assessment of new photosensitizers for PDI were accompanied by their immobilization in different supports having in mind the extension of the photodynamic principle to new applications, such as the disinfection of blood, water, and surfaces. In this review, we intended to cover a significant amount of recent work considering a diversity of photosensitizers and supports to achieve an effective photoinactivation. Special attention is devoted to the chemistry behind the preparation of the photomaterials by recurring to extensive examples, illustrating the design strategies. Additionally, we highlighted the biological challenges of each formulation expecting that the compiled information could motivate the development of other effective photoactive materials.