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Prein JC, Kalinke S, Haun DBM, Bohn M. TANGO: A reliable, open-source, browser-based task to assess individual differences in gaze understanding in 3 to 5-year-old children and adults. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:2469-2485. [PMID: 37429985 PMCID: PMC10991054 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02159-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
Traditional measures of social cognition used in developmental research often lack satisfactory psychometric properties and are not designed to capture variation between individuals. Here, we present the TANGO (Task for Assessing iNdividual differences in Gaze understanding-Open); a brief (approx. 5-10min), reliable, open-source task to quantify individual differences in the understanding of gaze cues. Localizing the attentional focus of an agent is crucial in inferring their mental states, building common ground, and thus, supporting cooperation. Our interactive browser-based task works across devices and enables in-person and remote testing. The implemented spatial layout allows for discrete and continuous measures of participants' click imprecision and is easily adaptable to different study requirements. Our task measures inter-individual differences in a child (N = 387) and an adult (N = 236) sample. Our two study versions and data collection modes yield comparable results that show substantial developmental gains: the older children are, the more accurately they locate the target. High internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates underline that the captured variation is systematic. Associations with social-environmental factors and language skills speak to the validity of the task. This work shows a promising way forward in studying individual differences in social cognition and will help us explore the structure and development of our core social-cognitive processes in greater detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Christin Prein
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Steven Kalinke
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Daniel B M Haun
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Manuel Bohn
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Psychology, Leuphana University Lüneburg, Lüneburg, Germany
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Nejati V, Khankeshlooyee N, Pourshahriar H. Remediation of theory of mind in children with autism spectrum disorders: Effectiveness and transferability of training effects to behavioral symptoms. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2024; 29:259-273. [PMID: 37857358 DOI: 10.1177/13591045231208580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) struggle with impaired theory of mind. We aimed to evaluate the effect of remediation of theory of mind on theory of mind, face perception, and behavioral symptoms in children with ASD. METHODS Thirty children with ASD were randomly assigned to two equal groups of theory of mind training and active control group. Attentive remediation of theory of mind (ARTOM) and story-telling sessions were used for intervention in the groups. Theory of mind and facial emotion recognition tests as well as Gilliam autism rating scale (GARS) were used for assessment in three baseline, post-intervention, and follow-up sessions. Repeated measures ANOVAs were used for analysis. RESULTS The results showed improvement in facial emotion recognition and theory of mind in intervention group. The behavioral symptoms, measured by GARS, were ameliorated in the intervention group. The training effects lasted until follow-up session. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest remediation of basic components of theory of mind, without direct intervention on theory of mind, improves theory of mind skill. The results also suggest that the remediation of basic components of theory of mind improves social and communicational performance and ameliorates stereotypes symptoms in children with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Nejati
- Department of Psychology, Shahid Beheshti University, Velenjak, Iran
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Mulvihill A, Armstrong R, Casey C, Redshaw J, Scarinci N, Slaughter V. Early childhood educators' mental state language and children's theory of mind in the preschool setting. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 41:227-245. [PMID: 37042035 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
The study examined the presence and nature of a relationship between 13 early childhood educators' mental state language (MSL) and 77 preschool children's (3- to 5 years) Theory of Mind (ToM). Educator language samples were elicited during two naturalistic group-time contexts, wordless picture book storytelling and an instructional building task. MSL was coded according to a comprehensive scheme that captures facets of MSL content and quality. To account for well-established determinants of ToM, a range of child- and family-level factors were also measured. Results indicated no significant relationship between educator MSL during group level instruction and children's ToM in the preschool setting. Although these findings challenge the assumption that educators' MSL is important for children's ToM development, important future directions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisling Mulvihill
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rebecca Armstrong
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Charlotte Casey
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jonathan Redshaw
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nerina Scarinci
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Virginia Slaughter
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Bianco F, Castelli I. The promotion of mature theory of mind skills in educational settings: a mini-review. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1197328. [PMID: 37333607 PMCID: PMC10273267 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1197328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
After formal school entry, theory of mind development encounters a blooming period of growth intertwined with social and academic achievements and challenges. Within this framework, in last years researchers have proposed training programs to foster mature ToM skills, but also, to test causal pathways for the role that ToM development may have in broader cognitive and social outcomes. In the current mini-review we examine which training programs have been developed so far to enhance three key aspects of mature ToM skills: second-order false belief reasoning, the ability to put one's own ToM knowledge into use, and the mentalization of thoughts and emotions. We also illustrate effects of these activities on intra- and inter- personal competence. In its conclusion the paper provides considerations of both first achievements of research in this area and gaps to be addressed in future works.
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Choi YM, Jeong SW. Theory of mind in children with cochlear implants: Comparison with age- and sex-matched children with normal hearing. Am J Otolaryngol 2023; 44:103693. [PMID: 36473267 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjoto.2022.103693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS Theory of mind (ToM) is a crucial ability for maintaining normal social interaction and is directly related to language ability. This study was performed to compare ToM between children with congenital hearing loss who have received cochlear implantation (CI) and those with normal hearing (NH). STUDY DESIGN Case-control study design. METHODS One hundred children, aged 2-12 years, participated: 50 children who received CI before 36 months of age (CI group) and one-to-one age- and sex-matched children with normal hearing (NH group). All children underwent tests to examine receptive language ability and ToM. Receptive language was measured using the Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test, and ToM was measured using the Theory of Mind Task Battery (ToM-TB). The scores of the two tests were compared between the CI and NH groups. RESULTS The ToM-TB score in the CI group correlated positively with age and receptive language score. ToM-TB scores did not differ significantly between children in the CI group who achieved normal receptive language and the NH group. However, these children in the CI group scored lower than those in the NH group on some advanced ToM tasks that require the ability to understand second-order emotion, message-desire discrepancy, or second-order false belief. CONCLUSIONS This case-control study found that children with CI who achieve normal receptive language ability have ToM that is similar to that in children with NH. However, these children exhibited weakness in advanced ToM skills. Interventions to facilitate the development of advanced ToM are needed for children with CI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Mi Choi
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, College of Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Wook Jeong
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, College of Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea.
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Viertel FE, Reis O, Rohlfing KJ. Acquiring religious words: dialogical and individual construction of a word's meaning. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20210359. [PMID: 36571128 PMCID: PMC9791491 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
By the age of eight, there is a significant increase in abstract words in the child's lexicon. A crucial contribution can be seen in the linguistic input, i.e. the way how abstract words are presented by caregivers by means of linguistic perspectivation and emotionalization. Following an interactionist way, we were interested in how the semantics of abstract words is constructed by child and caregiver in duet. We focused on a subset of abstract words and studied the acquisition of meaning of the religious concept mercy. We expected religious words to be emotionally anchored and presented with perspectivation, both contributing to learning. Exploring the dialogic constructions, we investigated eight 7- to 8-year olds and their parents during dialogic reading and studied their strategies focusing on the linguistic means of emotionalization and perspectivation in contextualizing the word. In a subsequent test, we analysed these means used by the children and assessed their individual understanding of mercy. Our analyses indicate that during reading, the enrichment of semantics by emotionalization was related between child and caregiver, whereas cross-situationally, a simultaneous enrichment of emotionalization and perspectivation was present. Moreover, the children demonstrated a conceptual understanding of mercy in religious contexts, but not in secular contexts. This article is part of the theme issue 'Concepts in interaction: social engagement and inner experiences'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska E. Viertel
- Department of German Studies and Comparative Literacy Studies, Psycholinguistics, Paderborn University, Warburger Straße 100, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
| | - Oliver Reis
- Department of Catholic Theology, Paderborn University, Warburger Straße 100, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
| | - Katharina J. Rohlfing
- Department of German Studies and Comparative Literacy Studies, Psycholinguistics, Paderborn University, Warburger Straße 100, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
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Narcolepsy and emotions: Is there a place for a theory of mind approach? Sleep Med 2023; 102:84-89. [PMID: 36634602 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2022.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Narcolepsy type 1 is a central disorder of hypersomnolence characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, rapid eye movement sleep-related manifestations, and cataplexy. In the current literature there is general agreement regarding neural correlates of Narcolepsy type 1 that appear to be related to anatomical and functional abnormalities in the hypothalamic region. In the last two decades, researchers shed light on the neurological bases of cataplexy by focusing on the neurobiological correlates of emotions. Although the results of these studies differ, they all point to an impairment in the amygdala and hypothalamus functions that are known to be involved in emotional processing, suggesting an impairment in this domain in narcoleptic patients. Indeed, despite heterogeneous results, several studies showed that narcoleptic patients differed from healthy controls in processing emotional stimuli. From a behavioral point of view, these findings suggest that alterations in emotional processing may be driven, at least in part, by compensatory strategies to avoid or reduce the frequency of cataplexy attacks. Surprisingly, the only study exploring in NT1 the behavioural performances in emotional facial recognition found no differences between NT1 adults and controls. We hypothesize that narcoleptic patients may present an alteration in a more complex socio-cognitive ability that is related to emotional processing, namely Theory of Mind. This review aims to investigate the literature supporting this hypothesis and to propose possible future developments on this topic.
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Bornstein MH, Yu J, Putnick DL. Prospective associations between mothers' and fathers' parenting styles and adolescents' moral values: Stability and specificity by parent style and adolescent gender. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev 2022; 2022:9-25. [PMID: 36314351 PMCID: PMC9813771 DOI: 10.1002/cad.20488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This study coordinates moral value development in adolescence, parenting style, and gender with issues of stability and specificity. The primary research question asked whether parenting styles of mothers and fathers influence the development of adolescent moral values, and secondary research questions asked whether adolescent moral values were stable and whether gender moderated predictive relations of parenting styles and adolescent moral values. At 14 and 18 years, a sample of 246 adolescents completed the Sociomoral Reflection Objective Measure - Short Form; at 14 years, mothers and fathers self-reported their parenting styles using the Parental Authority Questionnaire. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses established a 2-factor model of adolescent moral values across the two ages: Life and Social Contract captured prosocial aspects of morality that are left to individual choice, and Law and Social Order captured acts that are legally or morally obligatory for individuals to perform. Structural equation modeling investigated relations between parental parenting styles and the two adolescent moral value factors, with adolescent age, gender, and family SES as covariates. Both moral values factors had high stabilities across the 4-year period. Mothers' authoritarian parenting at 14 years, but not their authoritative or permissive parenting, negatively predicted Life and Social Contract moral values, but not Law and Social Order, in adolescents at 18 years, more so for boys. Fathers' parenting styles did not predict adolescents' moral values at 18 years. Girls and adolescents from higher-SES families had higher Life and Social Contract moral values at 14 years; boys experienced more increases in Life and Social Contract moral values from 14 to 18 years than girls. Stability and parental predictive validity of moral values for adolescence are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc H Bornstein
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Jing Yu
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Diane L Putnick
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Wu Y, Liu X, Zhang S, Zhong R. Training College Students with Hearing Loss in Theory of Mind. JOURNAL OF DEAF STUDIES AND DEAF EDUCATION 2022; 27:423-433. [PMID: 35797703 DOI: 10.1093/deafed/enac015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This paper explored training methods to improve the Theory of Mind levels of Chinese college students with hearing loss and investigated the transfer effect of training. Ninety Chinese college students with hearing loss were randomly divided into two groups: the ToM training group and the physical-conversation training group. The ToM training group received ToM training, and the physical-conversation training group as the control group received physical-conversation training. All the participants attended four separate 60-min lectures. The ToM Story Task and the False Belief Task were used to assess the training's effect, and the ToM animation task was adopted to investigate the transfer effect. Before training, the level of ToM of the two participant groups was similar. After training, the ToM level of Chinese college students with hearing loss who participated in ToM training was significantly higher than the students who underwent physical-conversation training. Moreover, the findings revealed that ToM training has long-term transfer effects. This study thus showed that ToM training can effectively improve the ToM level of Chinese college students with hearing loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Wu
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiping Liu
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Shengnan Zhang
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Rubo Zhong
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
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Lombardi E, Valle A, Bianco F, Castelli I, Massaro D, Marchetti A. Supporting mentalizing in primary school children: the effects of thoughts in mind project for children (TiM-C) on metacognition, emotion regulation and theory of mind. Cogn Emot 2022; 36:975-986. [PMID: 35452349 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2022.2067521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Mentalization is a useful ability for social functioning and a crucial aspect of mentalizing is emotion regulation. Literature suggests programmes for children and adults to increase mentalizing abilities useful both for emotional and social competences. For this reason, the issue of how to prompt children's mentalization has started to attract researchers' attention, supporting the importance of the interpersonal dimension for the individual differences in the developmental of mentalization. The TiM (Thoughts in Mind) Project, a training programme based on the explanation of mentalization mechanisms and designed for adults, deals with emotion regulation. Starting from the TiM Project, this study tests the effects of the TiM Child (TiM-C) training programme, over a control training programme, a conversational training designed for the school context, in children attending Year 2 of primary school. We designed a training based on narratives, followed by multiple-choice questions and conversations about mental states. Our results revealed significant improvements over the training period only in the TiM-C Project group for Metacognition, Emotion Regulation Strategies and a Theory of Mind task. As far as the educational implications, our findings suggest that it is possible to enhance mentalization through activities at school by promoting not only the understanding of the relations between mind and emotion, but also metacognitive skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Lombardi
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Annalisa Valle
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Bianco
- Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Ilaria Castelli
- Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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MOLDOVAN M, PRODAN N, COMAN AD, VISU-PETRA L. "Deep Dive into the Constructive Mind: Relating Interpretive Diversity Understanding to Anxiety Symptoms and Parental Practices in Middle Childhood". JOURNAL OF EVIDENCE-BASED PSYCHOTHERAPIES 2022. [DOI: 10.24193/jebp.2022.1.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The relation between the understanding of the mind as being constructive, anxiety, and parental factors is not fully elucidated. Interpretive diversity understanding represents an understanding that people can have a different interpretation of the same situation due to differences in beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge. We aim to bring together two approaches to this concept: the interpretive theory of mind (ToMi), and the constructivist theory of mind (ToMc) and relate them to anxiety symptoms and parental practices during middle childhood (8-12 years). In two studies, we used a restricted view paradigm to assess ToMi, a questionnaire to assess ToMc (the Constructivist Theory of Mind Interview, short written version in Study 1, and extended interview in Study 2) and parental and child reports of parental practices, as well as children’s anxiety symptoms. Results revealed that the two interpretive diversity understanding tasks were positively associated (Study 2). Overall, warm parental practices were positively associated with ToM tasks and a significant predictor for the ToMc interview answers. On the other hand, parental rejection and overprotection were negatively associated with performance on the ToMi task, with the ToMc score and positively with anxiety symptoms. Understanding the relationship between ToM, anxiety, and parental practices is essential for preventing early social and emotional difficulties during middle childhood.
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Smogorzewska J, Szumski G, Bosacki S, Grygiel P, Karwowski M. School engagement, sensitivity to criticism and academic achievement in children: The predictive role of theory of mind. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Cavallini E, Ceccato I, Bertoglio S, Francescani A, Vigato F, Ianes AB, Lecce S. Can theory of mind of healthy older adults living in a nursing home be improved? A randomized controlled trial. Aging Clin Exp Res 2021; 33:3029-3037. [PMID: 33682064 PMCID: PMC8595145 DOI: 10.1007/s40520-021-01811-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research in nursing homes mainly focused on interventions for residents affected by cognitive decline. Few studies have considered healthy older adults living in nursing homes, and this research targeted cognitive functioning. AIMS To evaluate whether socio-cognitive abilities can be improved by means of a theory of mind (ToM) training conducted by nursing home's operators. METHODS RESULTS: Results revealed that older adults benefitted from the ToM intervention in both practiced and non-practiced tasks, while the control group showed no change from pre- to post-test evaluation. Analyses on errors scores indicated that the ToM intervention led to a reduction of both excessive mentalizing and absence of mental states inference. DISCUSSION The conversation-based ToM intervention proved to be effective in improving socio-cognitive skills in cognitively healthy nursing home residents. Notably, older adults were able to transfer the skills acquired during the training to new material. CONCLUSIONS Promoting healthy resident's ToM ability could positively impact on their social cognition, consequently increasing their quality of life. Our findings showed that the intervention can be feasibly managed by health care assistants within the residential context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Cavallini
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pizza Botta 6, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
| | - Irene Ceccato
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. D' Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | | | - Andrea Francescani
- Fornaroli Hospital, Via al Donatore di Sangue 50, 20013, Magenta, MI, Italy
| | | | | | - Serena Lecce
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pizza Botta 6, 27100, Pavia, Italy
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Lecce S, Devine RT. Theory of mind at school: Academic outcomes and the influence of the school context. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Serena Lecce
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences University of Pavia Pavia Italy
| | - Rory T. Devine
- School of Psychology University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
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Lecce S, Ronchi L, Devine RT. Mind what teacher says: Teachers’ propensity for mental‐state language and children's theory of mind in middle childhood. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Serena Lecce
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Science University of Pavia Pavia Italy
| | - Luca Ronchi
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Science University of Pavia Pavia Italy
| | - Rory T. Devine
- School of Psychology University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
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Devine RT, Apperly IA. Willing and able? Theory of mind, social motivation, and social competence in middle childhood and early adolescence. Dev Sci 2021; 25:e13137. [PMID: 34235829 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the links between theory of mind, social motivation, and children's social competence in middle childhood and early adolescence. Two hundred and sixty four children (136 girls, 128 boys) aged between 8 and 13 years (M Age = 10.88 years, SD = 1.45) completed theory-of-mind tests and self-report questionnaires measuring social motivation. Teachers rated children's social competence at school. Teacher-rated social competence was associated with individual differences in both theory of mind and children's motivation to develop and maintain social relationships. Results suggest that while individual differences in social motivation and theory of mind are partially overlapping, both theory of mind ability and social motivation contribute to successful social interaction at school.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rory T Devine
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Ian A Apperly
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
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Wu J, Liu M, Lin W. Impact of Teacher's Mental State Talk on Young Children's Theory of Mind: A Quasi-Experiment Study. Front Psychol 2021; 12:668883. [PMID: 33841292 PMCID: PMC8033161 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between teachers' mental state talk and young children's theory of mind with a quasi-experiment. In total, 56 young children were assigned to the experiment group (meanage = 41 months, SD = 2.47, 46% girls) and the control group (meanage = 40.68 months, SD = 2.23, 43% girls). The experiment group was engaged in a 12-week intervention program with mental state talk in storytelling, casual conversations, and role-playing games, whereas the control group received no interventions. All the children were tested with three theory of mind (ToM) tasks before and after the intervention. The results indicated that the experimental group had a significant improvement in the ToM scores, whereas the control group showed no significant change. The educational implications of these findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianfen Wu
- School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Minmin Liu
- Hangzhou Qiantang Jiangchao Kindergarten, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wenqi Lin
- School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
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Bianco F, Lombardi E, Lecce S, Marchetti A, Massaro D, Valle A, Castelli I. Supporting Children’s Second-order Recursive Thinking and Advanced ToM Abilities: A Training Study. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2021.1901712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Adornetti I, Chiera A, Altavilla D, Deriu V, Marini A, Valeri G, Magni R, Ferretti F. Self-projection in middle childhood: a study on the relationship between theory of mind and episodic future thinking. Cogn Process 2021; 22:321-332. [PMID: 33582880 PMCID: PMC8179913 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-021-01013-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that theory of mind (ToM) and episodic future thinking (EFT) are closely related at both brain and functional level. This study explored the relationship between ToM and EFT in 96 Italian-speaking children with typical development aged between 8 and 10.11 using a behavioral design. ToM was assessed through an emotional facial expression recognition task. EFT was assessed with a task where participants were required to project themselves forward in time by anticipating future states of the self; this resulted in two scores: a nonverbal measure and a verbal explanation measure. Results showed that the participants’ performance on the task assessing ToM correlated with and predicted the nonverbal measure of the EFT task. These findings are discussed in the light of theories suggesting that each of these abilities is governed by a common system devoted to self-projection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Adornetti
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Chiera
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela Altavilla
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Deriu
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Marini
- Department of Languages and Literatures, Communication, Education and Society, University of Udine, Via Margreth, 3, 33100, Udine, Italy
- Claudiana - Landesfachhochschule Für Gesundheitsberufe, Bozen, Italy
| | - Giovanni Valeri
- Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Neuroscience, The Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Piazza Di Sant'Onofrio, 4, 00165, Rome, Italy
| | - Rita Magni
- Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Neuroscience, The Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Piazza Di Sant'Onofrio, 4, 00165, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Ferretti
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy
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20
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Lecce S, Bianco F, Hughes C. Reading minds and reading texts: Evidence for independent and specific associations. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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21
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Holl AK, Vetter NC, Elsner B. Disentangling the relations of theory of mind, executive function and conduct problems. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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22
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Del Sette P, Bambini V, Bischetti L, Lecce S. Longitudinal associations between theory of mind and metaphor understanding during middle childhood. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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23
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van den Bedem NP, Dockrell JE, van Alphen PM, Rieffe C. Emotional Competence Mediates the Relationship between Communication Problems and Reactive Externalizing Problems in Children with and without Developmental Language Disorder: A Longitudinal Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17166008. [PMID: 32824870 PMCID: PMC7459595 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17166008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Language problems are a risk factor for externalizing problems, but the developmental path remains unclear. Emotional competence may mediate the relationship, especially when externalizing problems are reactive in nature, such as in Oppositional Deviant Disorder (ODD) and reactive aggression. We examined the development of reactive and proactive externalizing problems in children with (n = 98) and without (n = 156) Developmental Language Disorder (DLD; age: 8-16 years) over 18 months. Relationships with communicative risk factors (structural, pragmatic and emotion communication) and the mediating role of emotional competence (emotion recognition and anger dysregulation) were examined. Multi-level analyses showed that increasing emotion recognition and decreasing anger dysregulation were longitudinally related to decreasing ODD symptoms in both groups, whereas anger dysregulation was related to more reactive aggression in children with DLD alone. Pragmatic and emotion communication problems were related to more reactive externalizing problems, but these relationships were mediated by emotional competence, suggesting that problems in emotional competence explain the communication problems of children with DLD. Therefore, in addition to interventions for communication skills, there is a need to address the emotional competence of children with DLD, as this decreases the risk for reactive externalizing problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeltje P. van den Bedem
- Developmental Psychology, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333AK Leiden, The Netherlands;
- Correspondence:
| | - Julie E. Dockrell
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, University College London, 25 Woburn Square, London WC1H 0AA, UK;
| | - Petra M. van Alphen
- Royal Dutch Kentalis, Theerestraat 42, 5271 GD Sint-Michielsgestel, The Netherlands;
| | - Carolien Rieffe
- Developmental Psychology, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333AK Leiden, The Netherlands;
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, University College London, 25 Woburn Square, London WC1H 0AA, UK;
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24
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Smogorzewska J, Szumski G, Grygiel P. Theory of mind goes to school: Does educational environment influence the development of theory of mind in middle childhood? PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237524. [PMID: 32797114 PMCID: PMC7428351 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research has shown that the development of theory of mind (ToM) depends on various individual and social factors, but very little research has examined the role of the natural educational environment in the development of ToM in middle childhood. In accordance with the importance of social factors in development, in this longitudinal study of 156 typically developing children, we investigated whether educational setting—classes containing children with disabilities (inclusive) or without such children (general education)—is associated with enhanced ToM development. ToM was measured with the ToM Scale, the Chocolate task and the Faux Pas Recognition Test. Analysis showed that ToM development was better among children educated in inclusive classes than among those educated in traditional classes. The results have implications for ToM development among children with and without disabilities as well as for educational practice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Paweł Grygiel
- Jagiellonian University, Faculty of Philosophy, Cracow, Poland
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25
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Caputi M, Cugnata F, Brombin C. Theory of mind and loneliness: Effects of a conversation‐based training at school. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 56:257-265. [DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marcella Caputi
- Department of Psychology University of Turin Turin Italy
- Department of Psychology Sigmund Freud University of Milan Milan Italy
| | - Federica Cugnata
- University Centre for Statistics in the Biomedical Sciences, Vita‐Salute San Raffaele University Milan Italy
| | - Chiara Brombin
- University Centre for Statistics in the Biomedical Sciences, Vita‐Salute San Raffaele University Milan Italy
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26
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The Lens Shapes the View: on Task Dependency in ToM Research. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40473-020-00205-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose of Review
This article provides an overview of current findings on Theory of Mind (ToM) in human children and adults and highlights the relationship between task specifications and their outcome in socio-cognitive research.
Recent Findings
ToM, the capacity to reason about and infer others’ mental states, develops progressively throughout childhood—the exact time course is still a matter of debate. Neuroimaging studies indicate the involvement of a widespread neuronal network during mentalizing, suggesting that ToM is a multifaceted process. Accordingly, the tasks and trainings that currently exist to investigate and enhance ToM are heterogeneous, and the outcomes largely depend on the paradigm that was used.
Summary
We argue for the implementation of multiple-task batteries in the assessment of socio-cognitive abilities. Decisions for a particular paradigm need to be carefully considered and justified. We want to emphasize the importance of targeted research on the relationship between task specifications and outcomes.
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27
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Does executive function influence the development of theory of mind in elementary students? CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-018-0107-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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28
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Perspective‐shifting discourse training to improve young Japanese children's understanding of theory of mind. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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29
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Beaudoin C, Leblanc É, Gagner C, Beauchamp MH. Systematic Review and Inventory of Theory of Mind Measures for Young Children. Front Psychol 2020; 10:2905. [PMID: 32010013 PMCID: PMC6974541 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory of mind (TOM), the ability to infer mental states to self and others, has been a pervasive research theme across many disciplines including developmental, educational, neuro-, and social psychology, social neuroscience and speech therapy. TOM abilities have been consistently linked to markers of social adaptation and have been shown to be affected in a broad range of clinical conditions. Despite the wealth and breadth of research dedicated to TOM, identifying appropriate assessment tools for young children remains challenging. This systematic review presents an inventory of TOM measures for children aged 0-5 years and provides details on their content and characteristics. Electronic databases (1983-2019) and 9 test publisher catalogs were systematically reviewed. In total, 220 measures, identified within 830 studies, were found to assess the understanding of seven categories of mental states and social situations: emotions, desires, intentions, percepts, knowledge, beliefs and mentalistic understanding of non-literal communication, and pertained to 39 types of TOM sub-abilities. Information on the measures' mode of presentation, number of items, scoring options, and target populations were extracted, and psychometric details are listed in summary tables. The results of the systematic review are summarized in a visual framework "Abilities in Theory of Mind Space" (ATOMS) which provides a new taxonomy of TOM sub-domains. This review highlights the remarkable variety of measures that have been created to assess TOM, but also the numerous methodological and psychometric challenges associated with developing and choosing appropriate measures, including issues related to the limited range of sub-abilities targeted, lack of standardization across studies and paucity of psychometric information provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Beaudoin
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Élizabel Leblanc
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Charlotte Gagner
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Miriam H. Beauchamp
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
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30
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Bianco F, Lombardi E, Massaro D, Castelli I, Valle A, Marchetti A, Lecce S. Enhancing advanced Theory of Mind skills in primary school: A training study with 7‐ to 8‐year‐olds. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Bianco
- Department of Brain and Behavioural SciencesUniversity of Pavia Pavia Italy
| | | | - Davide Massaro
- Department of PsychologyUniversità Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | - Ilaria Castelli
- Department of Human and Social SciencesUniversity of Bergamo Bergamo Italy
| | - Annalisa Valle
- Department of PsychologyUniversità Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | | | - Serena Lecce
- Department of Brain and Behavioural SciencesUniversity of Pavia Pavia Italy
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31
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Florit E, De Carli P, Giunti G, Mason L. Advanced theory of mind uniquely contributes to children's multiple-text comprehension. J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 189:104708. [PMID: 31634737 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the contribution of advanced theory of mind (AToM), operationalized as second- or higher-order recursive mentalistic reasoning, to multiple-text comprehension in fourth and fifth graders (N = 184). The role of AToM was analyzed by taking into account children's individual characteristics (i.e., age, gender, prior topic knowledge, word reading fluency, vocabulary knowledge, and single-text comprehension) and task features (i.e., contrast between positions on the topic of two sets of texts). Mixed models analysis revealed that AToM uniquely contributed to comprehension of multiple texts over and above the individual and task variables. In addition, the contribution of AToM to the comprehension of multiple texts did not significantly differ for the two tasks despite differences in contrast between positions on the topic. Results indicate that children's ability to consider different perspectives and mental states is a relevant unique predictor of multiple-text comprehension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Florit
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, 35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Pietro De Carli
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Giuditta Giunti
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Lucia Mason
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, 35131 Padova, Italy
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32
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Lecce S, Bianco F, Ronchi L. Executive function in the school context: The role of peer relationships. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Serena Lecce
- Department of Brain and Behavioral SciencesUniversity of Pavia Pavia Italy
| | - Federica Bianco
- Department of Brain and Behavioral SciencesUniversity of Pavia Pavia Italy
| | - Luca Ronchi
- Department of Brain and Behavioral SciencesUniversity of Pavia Pavia Italy
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33
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Ramezani A, Ghamari M, Jafari A, Aghdam GF. The Effectiveness of a ToM Training Program in Promoting Empathy Between Married Couples. JOURNAL OF COUPLE & RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/15332691.2019.1620145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Asiyeh Ramezani
- Department of Counseling, Abhar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abhar, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ghamari
- Department of Counseling, Abhar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abhar, Iran
| | - Asghar Jafari
- Department of Psychology, University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran
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34
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Smogorzewska J, Szumski G, Grygiel P. Theory of mind development in school environment: A case of children with mild intellectual disability learning in inclusive and special education classrooms. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES 2019; 32:1241-1254. [PMID: 31069902 DOI: 10.1111/jar.12616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2018] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This longitudinal study examines the extent to which a school classroom (inclusive vs. special education) is meaningful for theory of mind (ToM) development among children with mild intellectual disability. MATERIALS AND METHODS The participant group consisted of 166 primary school-aged children (M = 8.1, SD = 0.99), 79 of whom attended inclusive classrooms; the remaining 87 were in special education classrooms. RESULTS Although all children developed ToM over time, children's learning of ToM in inclusive classrooms was significantly greater than that seen in special classrooms. The difference remained significant after controlling for age. The present authors have compared children's individual and family characteristics, but there were almost no differences between groups. CONCLUSIONS The present authors discuss the results in the light of their importance for children's cognitive and social development. The implications for children's education are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Paweł Grygiel
- Department of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
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35
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Stewart E, Catroppa C, Lah S. A novel cognitive behavioural intervention with Theory of Mind (ToM) training for children with epilepsy: protocol for a case series feasibility study. Pilot Feasibility Stud 2019; 5:12. [PMID: 30680226 PMCID: PMC6339364 DOI: 10.1186/s40814-019-0393-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children with epilepsy have significant social impairments, yet evidence-based interventions to address these social difficulties are lacking. Emerging research has shown that social difficulties in children with epilepsy relate to underlying impairments in Theory of Mind (ToM). This paper outlines the protocol for a pilot study that will evaluate the feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy of a novel cognitive behavioural intervention with ToM training for children with epilepsy. METHODS The intervention will be evaluated in a single-arm case series feasibility study. Ten to 12 children with common forms of epilepsy (8 to 12 years old) will be recruited to participate in 4 small group workshops, held over 4 consecutive weeks. Parents will attend a brief review at the end of each session with their child. Children will complete 4 one-to-one assessments with an investigator assessing ToM and social competence: twice at baseline (4 weeks and 1 day before the intervention), at post-intervention (last day of the intervention) and at follow-up (4 weeks post intervention). Parents will complete online questionnaires at these same 4 time points assessing ToM and social competence of their child. Parents and children will both complete a weekly measure of social competence from baseline 1 to follow-up. Following completion of the intervention, parents will complete two standardised questionnaires assessing treatment acceptability and barriers and facilitators to attendance; children will complete a single questionnaire on treatment acceptability. Information about feasibility outcomes (i.e. recruitment and retention, processing time, suitability of tasks) will be gathered by investigators during the trial. Together, outcomes will be used to refine research methods and make a decision about whether the intervention should be evaluated in a larger scale trial. DISCUSSION To our knowledge, this is the first psychosocial intervention to address social competence problems in children with epilepsy. Findings will provide information about a potentially effective treatment that could improve longer term social outcomes for this group. TRIAL REGISTRATION Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trials Register (ANZCTR): ACTRN12618000974202, registered June 8 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Stewart
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, 94 to 100 Mallet Street, Camperdown, Sydney, New South Wales 2040 Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Cognition and its Disorders (ARC CCD), Sydney, Australia
- Australian Catholic University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Cathy Catroppa
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia
- Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
- University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Suncica Lah
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, 94 to 100 Mallet Street, Camperdown, Sydney, New South Wales 2040 Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Cognition and its Disorders (ARC CCD), Sydney, Australia
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36
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Liu Y, Yang X, Li J, Kou E, Tian H, Huang H. Theory of Mind Development in School-Aged Left-Behind Children in Rural China. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1819. [PMID: 30298044 PMCID: PMC6160696 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study aimed to investigate differences in theory of mind between left-behind children and non-left-behind children in rural China and to examine the potential protective role of general reasoning ability in left-behind children's theory of mind. Participants included 213 children aged 7.10-13.67 years (111 boys and 102 girls, M = 10.51 years, SD = 1.33), 101 of whom were left behind in rural areas by one or both migrating parents for at least 6 months. The Strange Stories task, a second-order false belief task, and a faux pas task were used to measure children's theory of mind, and Sessions B and C in Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices were used to test children's general reasoning ability. The results showed that left-behind children scored lower on both the faux pas task and Strange Stories task. Additionally, on second-order false belief understanding, left-behind boys performed worse than non-left-behind boys, while left-behind girls scored higher than non-left behind girls. Moreover, children's general reasoning ability moderated the relationship between parental migrant status and children's faux pas understanding: For children with high levels of general reasoning ability, left-behind children performed similarly to non-left-behind children, while for children with low levels of general reasoning ability, left-behind children scored lower than non-left-behind children, indicating that general reasoning ability buffered the negative effect of being left behind on children's theory of mind development. The implications of these findings for training directed at left-behind children are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanchun Liu
- College of Education Science, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, China
| | - Xuelian Yang
- College of Education Science, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, China
| | | | - Erhu Kou
- College of Education Science, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, China
| | - Huidong Tian
- College of Education Science, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi, China
| | - Heqing Huang
- College of Preschool Education, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
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37
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The relationship between parental mental-state language and 2.5-year-olds' performance on a nontraditional false-belief task. Cognition 2018; 180:10-23. [PMID: 29981965 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 06/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of evidence suggests that children succeed in nontraditional false-belief tasks in the first years of life. However, few studies have examined individual differences in infants' and toddlers' performance on these tasks. Here we investigated whether parental use of mental-state language (i.e. think, understand), which predicts children's performance on elicited-response false-belief tasks at older ages, also predicts toddlers' performance on a nontraditional task. We tested 2.5-year-old children in a verbal nontraditional false-belief task that included two looking time measures, anticipatory looking and preferential looking, and measured parents' use of mental-state language during a picture-book task. Parents' use of mental-state language positively predicted children's performance on the anticipatory-looking measure of the nontraditional task. These results provide the first evidence that social factors relate to children's false-belief understanding prior to age 3 and that this association extends to performance on nontraditional tasks. These findings add to a growing number of studies suggesting that mental-state language supports mental-state understanding across the lifespan.
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38
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Lecce S, Bianco F. Working memory predicts changes in children’s theory of mind during middle childhood: A training study. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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39
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Dore RA, Amendum SJ, Golinkoff RM, Hirsh-Pasek K. Theory of Mind: a Hidden Factor in Reading Comprehension? EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10648-018-9443-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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40
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Grazzani I, Ornaghi V, Conte E, Pepe A, Caprin C. The Relation Between Emotion Understanding and Theory of Mind in Children Aged 3 to 8: The Key Role of Language. Front Psychol 2018; 9:724. [PMID: 29867683 PMCID: PMC5962725 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Although a significant body of research has investigated the relationships among children’s emotion understanding (EU), theory of mind (ToM), and language abilities. As far as we know, no study to date has been conducted with a sizeable sample of both preschool and school-age children exploring the direct effect of EU on ToM when the role of language was evaluated as a potential exogenous factor in a single comprehensive model. Participants in the current study were 389 children (age range: 37–97 months, M = 60.79 months; SD = 12.66), to whom a False-Belief understanding battery, the Test of Emotion Comprehension, and the Peabody Test were administered. Children’s EU, ToM, and language ability (receptive vocabulary) were positively correlated. Furthermore, EU scores explained variability in ToM scores independently of participants’ age and gender. Finally, language was found to play a crucial role in both explaining variance in ToM scores and in mediating the relationship between EU and ToM. We discuss the theoretical and educational implications of these outcomes, particularly in relation to offering social and emotional learning programs through schools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Grazzani
- "Riccardo Massa" Department of Human Sciences for Education, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Veronica Ornaghi
- "Riccardo Massa" Department of Human Sciences for Education, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Conte
- "Riccardo Massa" Department of Human Sciences for Education, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Pepe
- "Riccardo Massa" Department of Human Sciences for Education, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Claudia Caprin
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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41
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Clarke A, Meredith PJ, Rose TA, Daubney M. A role for epistemic trust in speech-language pathology: A tutorial paper. JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS 2018; 72:54-63. [PMID: 29471178 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcomdis.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This paper provides an introduction to epistemic trust for speech-language pathologists (SLPs). 'Epistemic trust' describes a specific form of trust that an individual places in others when learning about the world, particularly the social world. To date, the relevance of epistemic trust to SLP clinical practice has received little theoretical or empirical attention. The aim of this paper is to define epistemic trust and explain its relationship with parent-child attachment and mentalization which have, in turn, been linked with language development and use. Suggestions are made for ways in which SLPs may encourage epistemic trust in clients, emphasizing the need to establish strong therapeutic alliances. The authors conclude that epistemic trust is an important consideration for SLPs and that further research exploring the relationship between epistemic trust and language skills is needed to better understand the interplay of these variables and inform clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Clarke
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Pamela J Meredith
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Tanya A Rose
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael Daubney
- Children's Health Queensland Hospital and Health Service, Queensland Health, Queensland, Australia
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42
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Cheung PPP, Siu AMH, Brown T, Yu ML. A social-cognitive intervention program for adolescents with autism: A pilot study. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY SCHOOLS AND EARLY INTERVENTION 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/19411243.2017.1408442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pui Pui Phoebe Cheung
- Clinical Associate & Occupational Therapist, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Andrew MH Siu
- Associate Professor & Clinical Coordinator of Occupational Therapy, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Ted Brown
- Associate Professor & Undergraduate Course Convener, Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University – Peninsula Campus, Frankston, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mong-lin Yu
- Lecturer & Fieldwork Coordinator, Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University – Peninsula Campus, Frankston, Victoria, Australia
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43
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Lecce S, Bianco F, Devine RT, Hughes C. Relations between theory of mind and executive function in middle childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. J Exp Child Psychol 2017; 163:69-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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44
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Lecce S, Caputi M, Pagnin A, Banerjee R. Theory of mind and school achievement: The mediating role of social competence. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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45
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Mossad SI, Smith ML, Pang EW, Taylor MJ. Neural correlates of "Theory of Mind" in very preterm born children. Hum Brain Mapp 2017; 38:5577-5589. [PMID: 28766907 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Very preterm (VPT) birth (<32 weeks' gestational age) has been implicated in social-cognitive deficits including Theory of Mind (ToM); the ability to attribute mental states to others and understand that those beliefs can differ from one's own or reality. The neural bases for ToM deficits in VPT born children have not been examined. We used magnetoencephalography (MEG) for its excellent spatial and temporal resolution to determine the neural underpinnings of ToM in 24 VPT and 24 full-term born (FT) children (7-13 years). VPT children performed more poorly on neuropsychological measures of ToM but not inhibition. In the MEG task, both FT children and VPT children recruited regions involved in false belief processing such as the rIFG (VPT: 275-350 ms, FT: 250-375 ms) and left inferior temporal gyrus (VPT: 375-450 ms, FT: 325-375 ms) and right fusiform gyrus (VPT: 150-200 ms, FT: 175-250 ms). The rIPL (included in the temporal-parietal junction) was recruited in FT children (475-575 ms) and the lTPJ in VPT children (500-575 ms). However, activations in all regions were reduced in the VPT compared to the FT group. We suggest that with increasing social-cognitive demands such as varying the type of scenarios in the standardized measure of ToM, reduced activations in the rIFG and TPJ in the VPT group may reflect the decreased performance. With access to both spatial and temporal information, we discuss the role of domain general and specific regions of the ToM network in both groups. Hum Brain Mapp 38:5577-5589, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah I Mossad
- Department of Diagnostic Imaging, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Neuroscience & Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Mary Lou Smith
- Department of Neuroscience & Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
| | - Elizabeth W Pang
- Department of Neuroscience & Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Toronto, Canada.,Division of Neurology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
| | - Margot J Taylor
- Department of Diagnostic Imaging, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Neuroscience & Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.,Division of Neurology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Medical Imaging, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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46
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Caputi M, Pantaleo G, Scaini S. Do Feelings of Loneliness Mediate the Relationship between Sociocognitive Understanding and Depressive Symptoms During Late Childhood and Early Adolescence? The Journal of Genetic Psychology 2017; 178:207-216. [DOI: 10.1080/00221325.2017.1317629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marcella Caputi
- Faculty of Psychology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Pantaleo
- UniSR-Social.Lab, Faculty of Psychology, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| | - Simona Scaini
- Faculty of Psychology, Sigmund Freud University, Milan, Italy
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Wang Z, Wang XC, Chui WY. Young Children's Understanding of Teaching and Learning and Their Theory of Mind Development: A Causal Analysis from a Cross-Cultural Perspective. Front Psychol 2017; 8:725. [PMID: 28559863 PMCID: PMC5432649 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Children's understanding of the concepts of teaching and learning is closely associated with their theory of mind (ToM) ability and vital for school readiness. This study aimed to develop and validate a Preschool Teaching and Learning Comprehension Index (PTLCI) across cultures and examine the causal relationship between children's comprehension of teaching and learning and their mental state understanding. Two hundred and twelve children from 3 to 6 years of age from Hong Kong and the United States participated in study. The results suggested strong construct validity of the PTLCI, and its measurement and structural equivalence within and across cultures. ToM and PTLCI were significantly correlated with a medium effect size, even after controlling for age, and language ability. Hong Kong children outperformed their American counterparts in both ToM and PTLCI. Competing structural equation models suggested that children's performance on the PTLCI causally predicted their ToM across countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenlin Wang
- Department of Psychology, The Education University of Hong KongTai Po, Hong Kong
| | - X Christine Wang
- Department of Learning and Instruction, University at Buffalo, SUNYBuffalo, NY, USA
| | - Wai Yip Chui
- Department of Psychology, The Education University of Hong KongTai Po, Hong Kong.,Assessment Research Centre, The Education University of Hong KongTai Po, Hong Kong
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48
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Böckler A, Herrmann L, Trautwein FM, Holmes T, Singer T. Know Thy Selves: Learning to Understand Oneself Increases the Ability to Understand Others. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2017; 1:197-209. [PMID: 32226919 PMCID: PMC7089715 DOI: 10.1007/s41465-017-0023-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Understanding others' feelings, intentions, and beliefs is a crucial social skill both for our personal lives and for meeting the challenges of a globalized world. Recent evidence suggests that the ability to represent and infer others' mental states (Theory of Mind, ToM) can be enhanced by mental training in healthy adults. The present study investigated the role of training-induced understanding of oneself for the enhanced understanding of others. In a large-scale longitudinal study, two independent participant samples (N = 80 and N = 81) received a 3-month contemplative training. This training focused on perspective taking and was inspired by the Internal Family Systems model that conceives the self as being composed of a complex system of inner personality aspects. Specifically, participants practiced perspective taking on their own inner states by learning to identify and classify different inner personality parts. Results revealed that the degree to which participants improved their understanding of themselves-reflected in the number of different inner parts they could identify-predicted their improvements in high-level ToM performance over training. Especially the number of identified parts that were negatively valenced showed a strong relation with enhanced ToM capacities. This finding suggests a close link between getting better in understanding oneself and improvement in social intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Böckler
- Department of Social Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lukas Herrmann
- Department of Social Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Fynn-Mathis Trautwein
- Department of Social Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Tom Holmes
- Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI USA
| | - Tania Singer
- Department of Social Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Science, Stephanstraße 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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49
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Lecce S, Ceccato I, Rosi A, Bianco F, Bottiroli S, Cavallini E. Theory of mind plasticity in aging: The role of baseline, verbal knowledge, and executive functions. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2017; 29:440-455. [PMID: 28385110 DOI: 10.1080/09602011.2017.1308871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to the ability to attribute mental states to the self and others in order to explain and predict social behaviour. Meta-analytic results have shown a decline in ToM abilities in healthy older adults. Recent research has also highlighted the possibility of enhancing older adults' ToM performance through group conversations focused on mental states. Our aim was to determine whether the extent to which older people benefited from a ToM training was predicted by performance on a battery of executive functioning tasks, on baselines in ToM tasks, on verbal knowledge. Forty-three older adults (60-84 years) participated in a three-session ToM training programme that has previously shown to be effective in improving ToM ability. Results showed that verbal knowledge predicted training gains in practiced ToM tasks. In addition, age, executive functions and baseline performance predicted training gains in non-practiced ToM tasks. Results are discussed in light of the amplification model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Lecce
- a Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences , University of Pavia , Pavia , Italy
| | - Irene Ceccato
- a Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences , University of Pavia , Pavia , Italy
| | - Alessia Rosi
- a Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences , University of Pavia , Pavia , Italy
| | - Federica Bianco
- a Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences , University of Pavia , Pavia , Italy
| | - Sara Bottiroli
- b Headache Science Centre, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute , Pavia , Italy
| | - Elena Cavallini
- a Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences , University of Pavia , Pavia , Italy
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50
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Hearing Loss and Cochlear Implantation. PERSPECTIVES IN PRAGMATICS, PHILOSOPHY & PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-47489-2_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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