The nature of orthographic learning in self-teaching: Testing the extent of transfer

Visual attention modulates the transition from fine-grained, serial processing to coarser-grained, more parallel processing: A computational modeling study

During reading acquisition, beginning readers transition from serial to more parallel processing. The acquisition of word specific knowledge through orthographic learning is critical for this transition. However, the processes by which orthographic representations are acquired and fine-tuned as learning progresses are not well understood. Our aim was to explore the role of visual attention in this transition through computational modeling. We used the BRAID-Learn model, a Bayesian model of visual word recognition, to simulate the orthographic learning of 700 4-to 10-letter English known words and novel words, presented 5 times each to the model. The visual attention quantity available for letter identification was manipulated in the simulations to assess its influence on the learning process. We measured the overall processing time and number of attentional fixations simulated by the model across exposures and their impact on two markers of serial processing, the lexicality and length effects, depending on visual attention quantity. Results showed that the two lexicality and length effects were modulated by visual attention quantity. The quantity of visual attention available for processing further modulated novel word orthographic learning and the evolution of the length effect on processing time and number of attentional fixations across repeated exposures to novel words. The simulated patterns are consistent with behavioral data and the developmental trajectories reported during reading acquisition. Overall, the model predicts that the efficacy of orthographic learning depends on visual attention quantity and that visual attention may be critical to explain the transition from serial to more parallel processing.

Morphology as an aid in orthographic learning of new words: The influence of inflected and derived forms in spelling acquisition

Prior studies have shown that children are sensitive to the principle of root consistency, whereby root morphemes retain their spelling across related words. The current study used an implicit learning situation to examine, in 56 third grade and 56 fifth grade French-speaking children, whether orthographic learning of new morphologically simple words ending in a silent letter benefited from morphological relatedness with inflected and derived forms. In the morphological condition, the new words (e.g.,clirot with a final silentt) appeared in short stories along with a morphologically related form in which the silent letter of the root was pronounced, justifying the presence of the silent letter in the root word. The morphologically complex form was an inflectional form (e.g.,clirote) for half of the children and was a derived form (e.g.,clirotage) for the other half. In the nonmorphological condition, the new words were not accompanied by morphologically related forms. After children had read the stories, their orthographic learning was assessed by asking the children to choose the correct spelling of each nonword from among three phonologically plausible alternatives (e.g.,clirot,cliros, cliro). Children chose correct spellings more often in the morphological condition than in the nonmorphological condition for both types of morphology in Grade 5 but only for inflectional morphology in Grade 3. Our findings indicate that, in learning new spellings, French children seem to rely on the root consistency principle earlier for inflectional morphology than for derivational morphology. Possible reasons for this developmental delay in mastering derivational morphology are discussed.

Acquisition of orthographic forms via spoken complex word training

This study used a novel word-training paradigm to examine the integration of spoken word knowledge when learning to read morphologically complex novel words. Australian primary school children including Grades 3-5 were taught the oral form of a set of novel morphologically complex words (e.g., (/vɪbɪŋ/, /vɪbd/, /vɪbz/), with a second set serving as untrained items. Following oral training, participants saw the printed form of the novel word stems for the first time (e.g., vib), embedded in sentences, while their eye movements were monitored. Half of the stems were spelled predictably and half were spelled unpredictably. Reading times were shorter for orally trained stems with predictable than unpredictable spellings and this difference was greater for trained than untrained items. These findings suggest that children were able to form robust orthographic expectations of the embedded morphemic stems during spoken word learning, which may have occurred automatically without any explicit control of the applied mappings, despite still being in the early stages of reading development. Following the sentence reading task, children completed a reading-aloud task where they were exposed to the novel orthographic forms for a second time. The findings are discussed in the context of theories of reading acquisition.

EXPRESS: The effect of oral vocabulary training on reading novel complex words

Do readers benefit from their knowledge of the phonological form and meaning of stems when seeing them embedded in morphologically complex words for the first time in print? This question was addressed using a word learning paradigm. Participants were trained on novel spoken word stems and their meanings ("tump"). Following training, participants then saw the novel stems for the first time in print, either in combination with a real affix (tumpist, tumpor) or a non-affix (tumpel, tumpain). Untrained items were also included to test if the affix effect was modulated by the prior training of the spoken word stems. First, the complex words were embedded in meaningful sentences which participants read as their eye movements were recorded (first orthographic exposure). Second, participants were asked to read aloud and spell each individual complex novel word (second orthographic exposure). Participants spent less time fixating on words that included trained stems compared to untrained stems. However, the training effect did not change depending on whether stems were accompanied by a real affix or a non-affix. In the reading aloud and spelling tasks, there was no effect of training, suggesting that the effect of oral vocabulary training did not extend beyond the initial print exposure. The results indicate that familiarity with spoken stems influences how complex words containing those stems are processed when being read for the first time. Our findings highlight the flexibility and adaptability of the morphological processing system to novel complex words during the first print exposure.

Probabilistic modeling of orthographic learning based on visuo-attentional dynamics

How is orthographic knowledge acquired? In line with the self-teaching hypothesis, most computational models assume that phonological recoding has a pivotal role in orthographic learning. However, these models make simplifying assumptions on the mechanisms involved in visuo-orthographic processing. Against evidence from eye movement data during orthographic learning, they assume that orthographic information on novel words is immediately available and accurately encoded after a single exposure. In this paper, we describe BRAID-Learn, a new computational model of orthographic learning. BRAID-Learn is a probabilistic and hierarchical model that incorporates the mechanisms of visual acuity, lateral interference, and visual attention involved in word recognition. Orthographic learning in the model rests on three main mechanisms: first, visual attention moves over the input string to optimize the gain of information on letter identity at each fixation; second, top-down lexical influence is modulated as a function of stimulus familiarity; third, after exploration, perceived information is used to create a new orthographic representation or stabilize a better-specified representation of the input word. BRAID-Learn was challenged on its capacity to simulate the eye movement patterns reported in humans during incidental orthographic learning. In line with the behavioral data, the model predicts a larger decline with exposures in number of fixations and processing time for novel words than for known words. For novel words, most changes occur between the first and second exposure, that is to say, after creation in memory of a new orthographic representation. Beyond phonological recoding, our results suggest that visuo-attentional exploration is an intrinsic portion of orthographic learning seldom taken into consideration by models or theoretical accounts.

Learning Orthographic and Semantic Representations Simultaneously During Shared Reading

Purpose The value of shared reading as an opportunity for learning word meanings, or semantics, is well established; it is less clear whether children learn about the orthography, or word spellings, in this context. We tested whether children can learn the spellings and meanings of new words at the same time during a tightly controlled shared reading session. We also examined whether individual differences in either or both of orthographic and semantic learning during shared reading in English were related to word reading in English and French concurrently and 6 months longitudinally in emergent English-French bilinguals. Method Sixty-two Grade 1 children (35 girls; M _age = 75.89 months) listened to 12 short stories, each containing four instances of a novel word, while the examiner pointed to the text. Choice measures of the spellings and meanings of the novel words were completed immediately after reading each set of three stories and again 1 week later. Standardized measures of word reading as well as controls for nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, and phonological awareness were also administered. Results Children scored above chance on both immediate and delayed measures of orthographic and semantic learning. Orthographic learning was related to both English and French word reading at the same time point and 6 months later. In contrast, the relations between semantic learning and word reading were nonsignificant for both languages after including controls. Conclusion Shared reading is a valuable context for learning both word meanings and spellings, and the learning of orthographic representations in particular is related to word reading abilities. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.13877999.

Effects of computerized grapho-phonological training on literacy acquisition and vocabulary knowledge in children with an immigrant background learning German as L2

As a consequence of globalization and migration, the number of children receiving literacy instruction in their second language (L2) is high and still increasing. Therefore, teachers need instruction methods that are effective in both L1 and L2 learners. Here, we investigate the effectiveness of a computerized training program combining phoneme perception, phonological awareness, and systematic phonics, in a sample of second-graders (N = 26) instructed in German as L2. Based on prior evidence concerning (1) literacy acquisition in L2 and (2) effects of literacy development on oral language abilities, we expected significant training effects on children’s literacy skills and vocabulary knowledge. The children of the training group worked through the program during school lessons, 20 min per day, for a period of 8 weeks. The controls continued to receive standard classroom instruction. German tests of phonological awareness, reading, spelling, and vocabulary were performed at three time points (pretest, immediate posttest, and follow-up after 9 weeks). Analyses confirmed that improvements in phonological awareness, spelling, and vocabulary between pretest and posttest were stronger in the training group when compared to the controls. For spelling and vocabulary, these effects were still significant at follow-up. Effect sizes were medium to high. For the reading measures, no group differences were found. In sum, the results yield further evidence for the effectiveness of phonics-based literacy instruction in L2 learners, and for the beneficial effects of basic literacy skills on novel word learning.

The Relation Between Linguistic Awareness Skills and Spelling in Adults: A Comparison Among Scoring Procedures

Purpose Spelling is a skill that relies on an individual's linguistic awareness, the ability to overtly manipulate language. The ability to accurately spell is important for academic and career success into adulthood. The spelling skills of adults have received some attention in the literature, but there is limited information regarding which approach for analyzing adults' spelling is optimal for guiding instruction or intervention for those who struggle. Thus, we aimed to examine the concurrent validity of four different scoring methods for measuring adults' spellings (a dichotomous scoring method and three continuous methods) and to determine whether adults' linguistic awareness skills differentially predict spelling outcomes based on the scoring method employed. Method Sixty undergraduate college students who were determined to be average readers as measured by a word reading and contextual word reading task were administered a spelling task as well as morphological, orthographic, phonemic, and syntactic awareness tasks. Results All four scoring methods were highly correlated suggesting high concurrent validity among the measures. Two linguistic awareness skills, morphological awareness and syntactic awareness, predicted spelling performance on both the dichotomous and continuous scoring methods. Contrastively, phonemic awareness and orthographic awareness predicted spelling performance only when spelling was scored using a continuous measure error analysis. Conclusions The results of this study confirm that multiple linguistic awareness skills are important for spelling in adults who are average readers. The results also highlight the need for using continuous measures of spelling when planning intervention or instruction, particularly in the areas of orthographic and phonemic awareness.

Reading in Arabic: How Well Does the Standard Model Apply?

Purpose We investigated the cognitive and linguistic processes that underlie reading in Arabic in relation to a well-defined theoretical framework of reading and the factors that underlie reading. Method The sample was 201 (101 boys, 100 girls) 3rd-grade Arabic-speaking children. Children were administered measures of Vocabulary, Phonological Awareness (PA), Naming Speed, Orthographic Processing, Morphological Awareness (MA), Memory, Nonverbal Ability, and 5 reading outcomes. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted for each of the 5 reading outcomes to investigate the predictors of children's reading. Results Each of the constructs explained unique variance when added to the model. In the final models, PA was the strongest predictor of all outcomes, followed by MA. In a follow-up analysis, participants were divided into good and poor decoders, based on their Pseudoword Reading scores. Good decoders outscored poor decoders on every measure. Within-group regression analyses indicated that poor decoders relied on more component processes than good decoders, suggesting a lack of automaticity. Variance in reading outcomes was better predicted for poor decoders than for good decoders. Conclusion These results indicate that standard predictors apply well to Arabic, showing the particular importance of PA and MA. Longitudinal and instructional studies are required to determine developmental patterns and ways to improve reading performance.

Young readers' skill in learning spellings and meanings of words during independent reading

Independent reading offers children opportunities to learn the spellings and meanings of words. Evidence to date shows that older children take advantage of these orthographic and semantic learning opportunities. We provided a much-needed test of whether young readers can acquire spellings and meanings of novel words through independent reading as well as of whether each of these skills explains individual differences in word reading and reading comprehension. To test theory stringently, we assessed whether these effects are separable from those of decoding. A sample of 66 English-speaking children in Grades 1 and 2 independently read stories containing novel words referring to new inventions (e.g., a veap used to clean fish tanks). We scored accuracy in reading the novel words in the stories to assess target decoding. Children completed choice measures evaluating their learning of the novel words' spellings and meanings along with word reading and reading comprehension and controls for age, short-term memory, vocabulary, and phonological awareness. Scores for both the orthographic and semantic learning measures were higher with successful decoding than without it. At both grade levels, children were above chance in choosing correct spellings and meanings even when they had not accurately decoded the target a single time. In terms of individual differences, after accounting for controls including target decoding, orthographic learning was related to word reading and semantic learning was related to reading comprehension. Young children have powerful skill in learning spellings and meanings through their independent reading, with highly specific impacts of such learning on reading outcomes.