Driving factors of ecosystem services and their spatiotemporal change assessment based on land use types in the Loess Plateau

Assessment of supply-demand relationships considering the interregional flow of ecosystem services

Accurate assessment of ecosystem service (ES) supply, demand, and flow is essential for identifying and enhancing the ES supply-demand relationship and promoting regional sustainable development. Based on the InVEST model, supply-demand ratio, coupling coordination analysis, breakpoint and field strength model, and GIS spatial analysis method, we evaluated the supply and demand of water yield, food supply, carbon storage, and soil conservation service in the Loess Plateau in 2000 and 2020 and analyzed the supply-demand relationship before and after considering the interregional ecosystem service flow (ESF). The results showed that (1) from 2000 to 2020, the supply and demand of the four types of ESs in the Loess Plateau increased. Before considering ESF, the surplus degree in water yield, food supply, and soil conservation increased, and carbon storage decreased. In most counties, the coupling coordination between the supply and demand of the soil conservation is mostly extreme incoordination and moderate incoordination, and other types of ESs are mostly reluctant coordination and moderate incoordination. The degree of incoordination in water yield and soil conservation have eased, while food supply and carbon storage have strengthened. For the comprehensive supply-demand relationship of ES, the degree of surplus and coordination increased, with most counties were in a state of surplus and coordination. (2) Water yield and soil conservation services flow primarily to the western and northwestern portions of the Loess Plateau, with a decrease in the number of flow paths but an increase in the total flow rate for the former and a decrease in flow paths and total flow rate for the latter. The food supply and carbon storage flow in all directions and the total flow rate increases, with a significant increase in the number of flow paths for carbon storage. (3) After considering ESF, the supply-demand relationship of each type of ES and the comprehensive ES supply-demand relationship are changed, in which the degree of surplus and coordination of deficit counties are significantly improved, and some counties even become surplus or improve the level of coordination. After considering ESF, the supply-demand ratio changes even more relative to the degree of coupling coordination. This study is of great significance for identifying the cross-regional transfer pattern of ES, understanding in-depth the dynamic supply-demand relationship of ES, and mitigating the mismatch between supply and demand of ES. It provides a scientific and objective theoretical basis for promoting regional sustainable development.

Multi-objective ecological restoration priority in China: Cost-benefit optimization in different ecological performance regimes based on planetary boundaries

In the context of the "United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration", optimizing spatiotemporal arrangements for ecological restoration is an important approach to enhancing overall socioecological benefits for sustainable development. However, against the background of ecological degradation caused by the human use of most natural resources at levels that have approached or exceeded the safe and sustainable boundaries of ecosystems, it is key to explain how to optimize ecological restoration by classified management and optimal total benefits. In response to these issues, we combined spatial heterogeneity and temporal dynamics at the national scale in China to construct five ecological performance regimes defined by indicators that use planetary boundaries and ecological pressures which served as the basis for prioritizing ecological restoration areas and implementing zoning control. By integrating habitat conservation, biodiversity, water supply, and restoration cost constraints, seven ecological restoration scenarios were simulated to optimize the spatial layout of ecological restoration projects (ERPs). The results indicated that the provinces with unsustainable freshwater use, climate change, and land use accounted for more than 25%, 66.7%, and 25%, respectively, of the total area. Only 30% of the provinces experienced a decrease in environmental pressure. Based on the ecological performance regimes, ERP sites spanning the past 20 years were identified, and more than 50% of the priority areas were clustered in regime areas with increased ecological stress. As the restoration area targets doubled (40%) from the baseline (20%), a multi-objective scenario presents a trade-off between expanded ERPs in areas with highly beneficial effects and minimal restoration costs. In conclusion, a reasonable classification and management regime is the basis for targeted restoration. Coordinating multiple objectives and costs in ecological restoration is the key to maximizing socio-ecological benefits. Our study offered new perspectives on systematic and sustainable planning for ecological restoration.

Exploring watershed ecological risk bundles based on ecosystem services: A case study of Shanxi Province, China

Humans are having an increasingly profound impact on the environment along with the advent of the Anthropocene. Ecological risk assessment (ERA) as a method to quantify ecological problems can provide support for decision-makers, and it is one of key issues to integrate ecosystem services into ERA. In this study, an ERA framework was proposed under the loss-probability paradigm from the perspective of ecosystem services risk bundles. The results showed that initiatives aimed at ecological protection in Shanxi Province had been effective, the number of watersheds with low-risk bundles increased significantly (from 16.09% to 34.49%) and the watersheds basically overlapped with key forestation areas. However, the effects of forestation activities may no longer be as significant as they once were, as the relationship between forestation and water supply was becoming increasingly contradictory. Meanwhile, the conflict between urban expansion and natural ecosystem protection was intensifying, habitat degradation risks were gradually polarized, and the risk bundles dominated by high carbon emission and habitat degradation were increasing significantly (from 15.88% to 33.54%). Strengthening the construction of urban green space and controlling the expansion of human activities may be the next focus of ecological conservation in Shanxi Province. This study enriched the ERA framework with an ecosystem services risk bundle approach.

Research on the dynamic mechanism of digital economy system coupling to enhance urban ecological resilience

Urban ecological environment resilience is an important characteristic that should be possessed in the process of urban development. It is conducive to coping with the challenges of multiple risks and disturbances such as climate change, resolving chronic pressure, improving the ability to resist disaster risk, self-adjustment, and recovery, to maintain the structure and function stability of the urban system. The digital economy is a new economic form caused by the new technological revolution, which may effectively promote economic ecology and ecological economization. We clarify the elements of the digital economic system, construct the coupling evaluation index system of "digital infrastructure-industrial digitization-digital industrialization," and establish the coupling degree model to analyze the characteristics of the integration interaction, coordination, and self-organization of the digital economy subsystem. Based on emergency management theory, adaptive management concept, and resilient city theory, an evaluation index system is constructed from four levels of prevention, resistance, adaptation, and recovery to measure urban ecological resilience. Taking 278 cities in China from 2011 to 2021 as the research object, we established a spatial econometric model to explore the dynamic mechanism of digital economy system composition and coupling coordination to enhance urban resilience and summarize the theoretical model form. Based on this, we further propose countermeasures and suggestions for improving urban ecological resilience by using a digital economic system.

Long-Term Effects of Ecological Restoration Projects on Ecosystem Services and Their Spatial Interactions: A Case Study of Hainan Tropical Forest Park in China

Ecological restoration projects aim to comprehensively intervene in damaged or deteriorating ecosystems, restore them, improve the provision of ecosystem services, and achieve harmonious coexistence between humans and nature. Implementing ecological restoration projects leads to continuous changes in land use/land cover. Studying the long-term changes in land use/land cover and their impacts on ecosystem services, as well as the trade-off and synergy between these services, helps evaluate the long-term effectiveness of ecological restoration projects in restoring ecosystems. Therefore, this study analyzes the land use/land cover, and ecosystem services of the Hainan Tropical Forest Park in China to address this. Since 2000, the area has undergone multiple ecological restoration projects, divided roughly into two stages: 2003-2013 and 2013-2021. The InVEST model is used to quantify three essential ecosystem services in mountainous regions (water yield, carbon storage, and soil conservation), and redundancy analysis identifies the primary driving factors influencing their changes. We conducted spatial autocorrelation analysis to examine the interplay among ecosystem services under long-term land use/land cover change. The results indicate a decrease in the total supply of water yield (-5.14%) and carbon storage (-3.21%) in the first phase. However, the second phase shows an improvement in ecosystem services, with an increase in the total supply of water yield (11.45%), carbon storage (27.58%), and soil conservation (21.95%). The redundancy analysis results reveal that land use/land cover are the primary driving factors influencing the changes in ecosystem services. Furthermore, there is a shift in the trade-off and synergy between ecosystem services at different stages, with significant differences in spatial distribution. The findings of this study provide more spatially targeted suggestions for the restoration and management of tropical montane rainforests in the future.

Spatiotemporal evolution and driving factors of ecosystem services' transformation in the Yellow River basin, China

The Yellow River basin (YRB) holds immense ecological significance in China, but it is currently undergoing profound transformations in its ecosystem services (ESs). To formulate appropriate environmental policies, it is vital to gain a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics and influential factors driving the ESs' transformation in the YRB. The spatiotemporal dynamics in ESs was evaluated using the InVEST model, and the modes of the ESs' transformation were summarized. The elements impacting ESs' transformation and their interactions were assessed using the optimal parameter-based geographical detector (OPGD). Over the period from 1980 to 2020, the water yield within the YRB exhibited an upward trajectory, with a distinctive spatial pattern characterized by higher values in the southern and eastern regions, in contrast to lower values observed in the northern and western regions. Similarly, soil conservation demonstrated a tendency to rise over the duration of the research, with southern and western regions consistently exhibiting higher values compared to the northern and eastern regions. In contrast, habitat quality decreased over time and was accompanied by a progressive spatial decline from the southeast regions to the northwest regions. The ESs' transformation in the YRB from 1980 to 2020 indicated three modes: (1) simultaneous increases, this mode was characterized by concurrent increases in water yield and soil conservation; (2) increase and decrease, in this mode, there was an increase in soil conservation accompanied by a decrease in habitat quality; and (3) increase and deterioration, the third mode entailed an increase in water yield but a simultaneous deterioration in habitat quality. The 45-km grid was the best spatial scale for the analysis in this study. Over the span of 2000 through 2020, the ESs' transformation in the YRB was subject to the influence of natural environmental, geographic location-related, socioeconomic, and policy factors. The determinants of the spatiotemporal heterogeneity in ESs' transformation in the YRB demonstrated double-factor and nonlinear enhancement effects. The counterchange with the most significant effects on ESs' transformation were those between economic density and annual mean precipitation, annual mean temperature and ecological restoration, and the per capita income of urban residents and vegetation index.

Study on the trade-off/synergy between ecosystem services and human well-being based on land use in Weinan City, China

Change of land use have important impacts on ecosystem services (ESs) and human well-being (HWB), yet the trade-off/synergy among land use, ESs, and HWB has still not received sufficient attention at city regional scales level. Weinan City in the southern of the Loess Plateau of China was taken as the study area. Based on ArcGIS, InVEST model, and RUSLE model, the characteristics of spatial and temporal variations of land use and ESs from 2000 to 2020 were analyzed, and the trade-off/synergy relationship between land use, ESs, and HWB was quantified using correlation analysis. The results indicated that the area of cultivated land decreased significantly and the area of built-up land increased significantly from 2000 to 2020 in Weinan City. The grain production, soil conservation, and water yield functions showed an increasing trend, which was a synergistic relationship with HWB. Carbon storage and habitat quality functions showed a decreasing trend, which was a trade-off relationship with HWB. The index value of HWB has increased significantly, mainly in the added value of agricultural and rural per capita income. Land use intensity has a trade-off relationship with GP, WY functions, and HWB. There are many factors that affect this trade-off/synergy relationship, such as land use patterns, economic development, and population growth. The study can provide a theoretical basis for the sustainable development of regional economy and nature.

Synergies and trade-offs of ecosystem services affected by land use structures of small watershed in the Loess Plateau

The Chinese government has implemented a series of ecological restoration projects in the Loess Plateau (LP), and the surface cover changed dramatically, impacting the ecosystem services (ESs) greatly. In this study, we used K-means clustering to classify the land use structures (LUSs) of the LP from 1990 to 2015 at the small watershed scale, and investigated the effects of LUS on water supply (WS), soil conservation (SC), and carbon sequestration (CS, expressed as NPP) with constraint lines. The values of WS and SC were obtained from the InVEST simulation, validated by the hydrographic station data. The results showed that the LUSs in LP were cropland structure (CLS, distinguished with CS), forest structure (FS), grassland structure (GS), crop-grassland structure (CGS), crop-forest-grassland structure (CFGS) and a very few areas of barren structure (BS). The proportion of dominant land use in those LUSs with a balance of WS, SC, and CS was 0.6-0.7 (cropland in CLS), 0.5 (forest in FS), 0.45/0.4 (cropland/grassland in CGS), 0.75 to 0.85 (grassland in GS), and 0.15/0.4/0.25 to 0.35 (cropland/forest/grassland in CFGS), respectively. The types of constraint curves of ESs for those LUSs involves hump-shaped curve, negative convex, half-concave-waved curve and concave-waved curve. This study proposed a method to objectively delineate LUS and improved the constraint line method to make it suitable for cases with less data, innovatively presenting the variation of ESs inside LUSs, which may provide a reference for optimal land planning and sustainable development of social-ecological systems.

Assessment of suitable areas for afforestation and its carbon sink value in fragile ecological areas of northern China

Afforestation and reforestation are pivotal in mitigating land degradation and bolstering the carbon sink capacity of terrestrial ecosystems. However, the potential economic ramifications of afforestation and reforestation in the context of climate change remain largely unexplored. In this study, we employed an interdisciplinary methodology to establish a framework for assessing future forest potential and carbon sequestration in the Eastern Loess Plateau region of China. Our findings indicate that an estimated 17,392.99 km2 of land suitable for afforestation still existed within the region, exhibiting a propensity to aggregate around existing forests rather than being dispersed randomly. Notably, 4385.36 km2 was prioritized for afforestation initiatives. Projections suggest a significant enhancement of the forest carbon sink within the study area by 2050, ranging from 36.93 Mt to 105.38 Mt. The corresponding economic value for this enhancement is estimated to vary between US$3.25 billion and US$17.68 billion. Of significance is the observed polarization of the region's carbon sink capacity over time, with half of the total carbon sinks concentrated within 10% of the districts. Additionally, approximately 26% of the counties are expected to transition from carbon sinks to carbon sources. These findings underscore the substantial impact of climate change on forest distribution and suggest a targeted approach to combat forest degradation by circumventing ineffective afforestation activities.

Exploring spatial-temporal driving factors for changes in multiple ecosystem services and their relationships in West Liao River Basin, China

Ecosystem services (ES) are the direct and indirect benefits people obtain from ecosystems, serving as a bridge linking ecological systems and social-economic systems. The quantitative assessment of the dynamic changes in ES and their relationships and the identification of the driving forces behind them have recently become a research hotspot. However, several research gaps remain challenging, such as the lack of an analytical framework for selecting relevant driving factors and the need for an innovative approach that integrally estimates the impacts of driving factors on the changes in ES and the relationships between ES. In this study, we modify the social-ecological system framework as the analytical basis and suggest a series of principles for selecting relevant driving factors, we then adopt the path analysis model to simultaneously and consistently quantify the contributions of driving factors to ES changes and their relationships. Using the West Liao River Basin (WLRB) as a case study, the results show the spatial-temporal variations in three ES and six driving factors from 2000 to 2020, divided into four periods. The estimation of path analysis model confirm two hypotheses that different driving factors exerted differential effects on changes in multiple ES in four periods for the whole WLRB and in three sub-basins for the period 2015-2020. In addition, the path analysis exhibits the quantitative relationships between food production, water yield, and soil conservation, which vary temporally and spatially in different periods and different sub-basins. The identification of driving factors is helpful for supporting policy-making to construct a coupled self-adjusted social-ecological for the benefit of the public.

An integrated approach to assess spatial and temporal changes in the contribution of the ecosystem to sustainable development goals over 20 years in China

Ecosystems are an important basis for promoting sustainable development goals (SDGs) through the provision of stable ecosystem services (ESs). In the past 20 years, China has implemented a series of forestry ecological development projects, resulting in the improvement of the ecological environment. In this context, changes in ESs in China may affect the contribution of ecosystems to the SDGs, but there is a lack of research in this area. Studies have shown that ESs can support multiple SDGs, and quantifying the contribution of ecosystems to SDGs is currently a research focus. However, few studies have quantified the extent of the contribution of different ESs to the SDGs, although these differences are generally assumed. To narrow this knowledge gap, we construct an assessment approach that integrates the extent of the contribution of different ESs to the SDGs and assesses the temporal and spatial dynamics of the contribution of ESs to the SDGs in China from 2000 to 2020. Our analysis results indicate that during the study period, fractional vegetation cover improved in China. In general, water provision, soil conservation, and food provision services improved, while carbon storage and biodiversity maintenance services declined. The contribution capacity of provincial ecosystems to the SDGs increased, except in Tibet, between 2000 and 2020. Overall, the contributions to the SDGs had obvious spatial differences. The research results can support policy formulation and research on ES management and SDGs.

Designing a sustainable collection and transportation routes for domestic wastes in the agro-pastoral ecotone of the Tibetan Plateau

The absence of an efficient and safe routes for the timely collection and transportation of domestic waste (DW) may have negative effects on the environment and public health. However, the existing collection and transportation routes (CTR) for domestic waste (DW) based on territorial management are not suitable for the special socio-ecological system of the agro-pastoral ecotone (APE). Therefore, it is crucial to develop a low-cost, high-efficiency, and risk-free CTR to mitigate the threat of DW to the environmental sustainability in the APE of the Tibetan Plateau. This study selected Haidong as a research case and constructed a sustainable CTR optimization framework based on an integrated perspective on temporal, spatial and eco-safety risk. We used the improved Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) to simulate optimal spatial-temporal routes, and the eco-safety risk level of the CTR was assessed by using the Minimum Cumulative Resistance model (MCR). Results demonstrated that: (1) After the sustainable model was optimized, the total transportation mileage and the frequency of collection and transportation were reduced by 45.88% and 38.07% respectively, the economic cost savings were decreased by 32.29%. Optimized routes were more effective and can better adapt to the dispersed pollution-producing characteristics in the APE. (2) The optimized routes reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 41.09%, and reduced the eco-safety risk of the high and relative high-risk routes, which account for 29.05% of total routes, can protect important ecological functions and reduce the adverse impacts of DW transportation on soil, atmosphere, water, and the living environment. (3) The cores of adaptive management for sustainable CTR in APE were to change from the current single-county administrative organization to a cross-county administrative organization; adjust the transportation cycle based on pollution-producing characteristics; sort the DW locally; and cultivate environmental awareness among farmers and herdsmen. This study designed new sustainable collection and transportation routes for domestic waste to improve environmental sustainability in the agro-pastoral ecotone.

What impacts ecosystem services in tropical coastal tourism cities? A comparative case study of Haikou and Sanya, China

The ecological environment of tourism-oriented towns is attracting increasing attention. Taking the cities of Haikou and Sanya as examples, we examined changes in six ecosystem services (ES), including water conservation (WC), crop production (CP), soil retention (SR), carbon storage (CS), habitat quality (HQ), and tourism recreation (TR) from 2005 to 2020. From the three perspectives of geographical environment, socioeconomic development, and tourism development force, 14 indicators were chosen to examine the impact on ES. Except for Haikou's TR, the other ES of Haikou and Sanya showed a decreasing trend from 2005 to 2020. The values of six ES were lower in coastal zones than in noncoastal zones, which were more obvious in Sanya. Specifically, the areas of low value in Sanya were concentrated in the coastal region, and the areas with low value in Haikou were primarily distributed in blocks along the coast and in bands or points in the central and southern areas. From the perspective of influencing factors, the natural environmental factors dominate in Haikou, followed by the socio-economic factors and finally the tourism development factors, while the natural environmental factors also dominate in Sanya, followed by the tourism development factors and finally the socio-economic factors. We provided recommendations for sustainable tourism development in Haikou and Sanya. This study has significant implications for both integrated management and scientific decision-making to enhance the ES of tourism destinations.

Construction and optimization of ecological security pattern based on the circuit theory: a case study of Hohhot City

The construction of ecological security pattern aims to determine the bottom line of ecological land supply and effective spatial distribution and provides a scientific basis for ensuring regional ecological security. The basic paradigm of "source recognition-resistance surface creation-corridor identification-key areas determination" was used to construct the ecological security pattern of Hohhot City in 2009 and 2019. The circuit theory was employed to determine the demand for protection and restoration of crucial ecological area and to divide the core ecological protection and restoration area, the core restoration area, the core protection area, and the general ecological protection area; then, the optimization of Hohhot's ecological security pattern could be proposed. The results show that there was no interconnected and closed ecological network in 2009 and 2019 in the study area, and the area of significant ecological elements were decreasing: ecological source areas decreased from 266.97 to 261.21 km2, the number of ecological corridors decreased from 10 to 6, and the total area of ecological protection and restoration areas decreased from 342.15 to 199.91 km2. The results show that in the past 10 years, the ecological space in Hohhot had problems such as quality degradation, fragmentation intensifying, and effective landscape connectivity declining. It is urgent to optimize the ecological sources layout, strengthen the restoration of barrier areas and the protection of pinch point areas, and improve habitat connectivity to ensure the improved regional ecological security. Our results can provide a scientific reference for coordinating ecological protection and economic development, as well as the policy formulation and implementation of relevant departments.

Exploring interactions in water-related ecosystem services nexus in Loess Plateau

Scientific understanding of the driving relationship between water-related ecosystem services (WESs) and influencing factors, as well as the trade-off and synergy relationship between WESs and WESs, is the premise of reasonably bringing them into management decisions. However, the existing research often separates the above-mentioned two relationships and conducts independent research, which leads to the conflict of research conclusions and cannot be well adopted by managers. Therefore, based on the panel data of Loess Plateau in 2000-2019, this paper uses the simultaneous equation model to combine the two kinds of relationships existing between WESs and influencing factors, establish a feedback loop, and reveal the interactions mechanism of WESs nexus. The results show that: (1) The fragmentation of land use leads to the uneven spatial-temporal distribution of WESs. (2) Vegetation factors and land factors are the main driving factors that affect WESs, and the impact of climate factors on WESs is decreasing year by year. (3) The increase of water yield ecosystem services will lead to the obvious increase in soil export ecosystem services, and there is a synergistic relationship between soil export ecosystem services and nitrogen export ecosystem services. The conclusion can provide an important reference for implementing the strategy of ecological protection and high-quality development.

Ecosystem carbon sequestration service supports the Sustainable Development Goals progress

Ecosystem carbon sequestration service (ECSS) is the benefits humans derive from the ecosystem carbon sequestration process, which is key to regulating climate, stabilising the natural foundation for development, and supporting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) achievement. However, how ECSS contributes to the SDGs still needs to be discovered. Here, based on downscaling localisation SDG indicators, regression methods, and mechanism analysis, we identified the contribution of ECSS to the SDGs, taking China's Loess Plateau (LP) region as an example. The results showed that the LP made higher progress on resource and environmental SDGs, such as SDGs 13, 12, 6, and 7 (climate, consumption and production, water, and energy) in the last two decades. As for the relationships between ECSS and SDGs, the progress of SDGs 6, 7, 13 and 15 (water, energy, climate, and ecosystems) showed positive linear responses to ECSS. The response of SDGs 1, 4, 8, and 12 (poverty reduction, education, economic growth, and consumption and production) to ECSS showed a threshold when the standardised ECSS value was 0.11. To improve ECSS for a more sustainable ecological foundation underpinning the SDGs, ECSS management should be improved to protect the ecosystem carbon pool and improve carbon sequestration function, as well as to promote the social-ecological co-benefits. This work links carbon sequestration service to sustainable development and can help in leveraging nature's contributions towards carbon neutrality and the 2030 Agenda.

Land cover change in global drylands: A review

As a sensitive region, identifying land cover change in drylands is critical to understanding global environmental change. However, the current findings related to land cover change in drylands are not uniform due to differences in data and methods among studies. We compared and judged the spatial and temporal characteristics, driving forces, and ecological effects by identifying the main findings of land cover change in drylands at global and regional scales (especially in China) to strengthen the overall understanding of land cover change in drylands. Four main points were obtained. First, while most studies found that drylands were experiencing vegetation greening, some evidence showed decreases in vegetation and large increases in bare land due to inconsistencies in the datasets and the study phases. Second, the dominant factors affecting land cover change in drylands are precipitation, agricultural activities, and urban expansion. Third, the impact of land cover change on the water cycle, especially the impact of afforestation on water resources in drylands, is of great concern. Finally, drylands experience severe land degradation and require dataset matching (classification standards, resolution, etc.) to quantify the impact of human activities on land cover.

Effects of landscape conservation on the ecohydrological and water quality functions and services and their driving factors

Since the implementation of landscape conservation of the green heart area in the Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan Metropolitan Region, the landscape structure and pattern have changed significantly. The ecosystem service functions in the area have been improved, but the status of ecohydrological and water quality and service functions (EHWQSFs) is still unclear. To clarify the status of EHWQSFs and their driving factors influenced by landscape conservation, this study analysed landscape changes using remote sensing image data from 1998, 2008, and 2018 and the changes and their spatial characteristics using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and spatial analysis methods. The results showed that the dominant land types in the area were forestland and cropland from 1998 to 2018; the area of forestland and construction land expanded and that of cropland decreased year by year; the annual average surface runoff volume rose, and the annual average actual evapotranspiration and soil water content fell from 1998 to 2008 and rose from 2008 to 2018; and all pollutant indicators decreased significantly after 2008. The areas with higher surface runoff were mainly concentrated in the central and southern regions, those with higher evapotranspiration were in the northwestern and southwestern regions, those with higher soil water content were in the northern region, and those with higher sediment and nitrogen and phosphorus pollutant contents were in the central and southeastern regions. The results showed that land use, land cover and meteorological factors were the most significant drivers on EHWQSFs and illustrated that EHWQSFs in the area decreased after 1998. There was a significant improvement after 2008 and the area currently has a good status. This study not only provides insights into land use, land cover and meteorological factors that have significant impacts on EHWQSFs but also highlights that the landscape conservation of the area can improve ecosystem service functions.

Spatio-Temporal Changes in Land Use and Habitat Quality of Hobq Desert along the Yellow River Section

As a key area in the Yellow River basin for sand control and management, the land change process in the Hobq Desert plays a crucial role in keeping the river and desert ecosystems and promoting the construction of ecological civilization in human systems. Based on multi-temporal remote sensing from 1991 to 2019 in the Hobq Desert along the Yellow River section, this study selected spatial statistical methods (land-use monitoring and landscape metrics) to examine land-use change dynamics. Then, we evaluated habitat quality using the InVEST model and quantitatively analyzed the factors causing spatial changes in habitat quality using geographic detectors. Finally, this paper predicted the pattern of land use and habitat quality in 2030 using the PLUS model. The results reveal that (1) from 1991 to 2019, the total area of forest grassland increased by 3572.5 km2, providing the most vegetation cover, and the sandy land and water area decreased continuously, while the cultivated land and construction land increased. There were 38.01% conversions of land types, with the land-use dynamic decreasing the greatest in sandy land (-12.66%) and increasing the greatest in construction land (9.26%); the comprehensive land-use dynamics were the highest in 2010-2019 (1.68%), which was the most active stage during our study period. (2) Both of the landscape indices NP and PD showed "N" type fluctuations during 1991-2019, and CONTAG and LSI rose from 69.19% to 70.29% and 36.01% to 38.89%, respectively, indicating that the land-use degree of landscape fragmentation increased, landscape connectivity turned better, and landscape dominance was enhanced, balanced, and developed evenly in overall landscape type. (3) From the overall region analysis, the average habitat quality in 1991, 2000, 2010, and 2019 was 0.3565, 0.5108, 0.5879, and 0.6482, respectively, with the overall habitat value showing a gradually increasing trend. Spatially, the habitat quality along the Yellow River section of the Hobq Desert has a certain regularity, and the overall pattern there is high in the south and low in the north, high in the east and west, and low in the middle. (4) The change in land use between 2019 and 2030 is similar to the previous period, but the change rate is generally lower. The habitat quality improved significantly, with the growth of high and medium habitat quality.

Spatial-Temporal Variations in of Soil Conservation Service and Its Influencing Factors under the Background of Ecological Engineering in the Taihang Mountain Area, China

Soil conservation (SC) plays an important role in maintaining regional land productivity and sustainable development. Ecological engineering (EE) is being implemented in different countries to effectively alleviate the damage to the ecological environment and effectively protect soil and food security. It is important to determine whether or not the SC capacity becomes stronger after the implementation of EE and whether or not EE has a notable impact on SC in different altitude zones. The exploration of the influencing mechanism and identification of the dominate influencing factors in different geographical regions needs to be improved. In this study, the soil conservation services (SCSs) from 1980 to 2020 in the Taihang Mountain area was assessed using the integrated valuation of ecosystem services and trade-offs (InVEST) model, and the spatial and temporal distributions and influencing factors were explored. The results showed the following: (1) the average SCSs exhibited an increasing trend from 1980 to 2020 on the whole, and the rate of increase reached 50.53% during the 41-year period. The rate of increase of the SCSs varied in the different EE implementation regions, and it was significantly higher than that of the entire study area. (2) The spatial distribution of the SCSs was highly heterogeneous, and the high SCS value areas were coincident with the high-altitude areas where forest and grassland occupied a large proportion. The low value areas were mainly located in the hilly zone or some of the basin regions where the proportion of construction land was relatively high. (3) The distribution pattern of the SCSs was the result of multiple factors. The EE intensity had the strongest explanatory power for the SCSs in the hilly zone, explaining 34.63%. The slope was the most critical factor affecting the SCSs in the mid-mountain and sub-alpine zones. The slope and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) had the greatest interactions with the other factors in the three altitude zones, especially in the high-altitude regions. The quantitative analysis of the SCSs and the influences of EE and natural factors on the SCSs revealed the heterogeneity in the mountainous areas. These results also provide a scientific basis for the reasonable implementation of EE and sustainable management of SCSs in the Taihang Mountain area.

Environmental laws and ecological restoration projects enhancing ecosystem services in China: A meta-analysis

In recent decades, China has implemented ecological restoration projects (ERPs) to improve biodiversity and ecosystem services (ESs), accordingly, a series of environmental laws were issued to guide ecological restoration. However, quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness of ERPs remains ambiguous. To respond to the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (UNDER), we conducted a meta-analysis of 85 peer-reviewed publications and an interdisciplinary evaluation framework based on China's environmental protection and land administration laws (EPLALs) were established to assess the effectiveness of ERPs. We found that ERPs enhanced ESs by 15-58%. Specifically, ERPs implemented in industrial/mining, and wetland regions significantly increased regulating and cultural services, and in arid and semi-arid regions mainly enhance provisioning services (72.98%). Climate factors were found to be crucial for ecological restoration effectiveness (temperature: r = -0.582, significance <0.05; precipitation: r = 0.635, significance <0.05). China's environmental laws emphasized management and investment in ecological restoration. However, the disclosure, public participation and real-time monitoring of ecological conditions need to be improved urgently. We therefore developed ERP-related policy recommendations and global lessons to help improve the effectiveness of ecological restoration.

Spatial-Temporal Variations and Trade-Offs of Ecosystem Services in Anhui Province, China

Research on the spatiotemporal evolution and trade-offs of ecosystem services (ESs) is important for optimizing the ecological security barrier system and promoting coordinated socio-economic development. Natural factors, e.g., climate change, and human factors, e.g., unreasonable land use, have impacted and damaged ecosystem structure and function, leading to challenges with ES trade-offs and the spatial identification of priority protected areas. Here, the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of five ESs (water yield, nitrogen export, soil retention, carbon storage, and habitat quality) in Anhui Province, China, from 2000-2020 were analyzed based on the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model. The trade-offs and spatial patterns among different ESs were explored using Pearson correlation and hotspot analyses; the dynamics of natural growth, cultivated land protection, and ecological protection scenarios for ESs in 2030 were simulated and analyzed by coupling InVEST with the patch-generating land use simulation (PLUS) model. The results reveal the following. (1) From 2000-2020, increases in water yield and soil retention occurred, with concurrent declines in the other services; the total nitrogen high-value area was mainly concentrated in the plain, with the other services' high-value areas mainly concentrated in the Dabieshan and Southern Anhui Mountains, with each ES showing similar spatial distributions across years. (2) The ESs were mainly synergistic, with trade-offs mainly between nitrogen export and other services. (3) Hotspot overlap between water yield and the other ESs was relatively low; no more than 6.53% of ecosystems per unit area provided five ESs simultaneously. (4) Other than water yield, the ecological protection scenario was more conducive to improving ecosystem functions. This study's results indicate inadequate synergy among ESs in Anhui Province; competition among land types must be further balanced in the future. This study provides a basic reference for implementing ecological projects and constructing ecological security patterns.

The impact of ecotourism on ecosystem functioning along main rivers and tributaries: Implications for management and policy changes

Tourism along river basins benefits both tourists and the economy, but its management necessitates trade-offs between nature-based recreation and ecological functioning. Despite ecosystem services being helpful in managing environmental challenges, there are limited data on the impact of tourism activities on ecosystem functioning across different river types globally. This study investigates how people's recreational activities and values affect ecosystem functioning in high-order rivers. The original field data were collected from 308 transects along the main river and tributaries of the Three Gorges Dam Reservoir in China during 2019. Kruskal-Wallis tests (p < 0.01) revealed that the ecosystem functioning indices were significantly higher than the recreational activity and value indices around the rivers and that ecosystem functioning was highest around tributaries. The critical variables of ecotourism activities and ecosystem functioning identified by principal component analysis accounted for 66.49% of the total variance. The Pearson correlation coefficient strengths among tourism and ecosystem functioning parameters were correlated mildly to moderately, but they exhibited positive and negative connections with a range of r = -0.27 to 0.37 (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the distribution patterns of these parameters that were determined by hierarchical cluster analysis were diverse for both the main river and its tributaries. The findings suggest that the development and enforcement of zoning may be necessary for the long-term use of natural resources by all sectors of society. Therefore, it is imperative to raise public awareness and urge governments to adopt more progressive ecotourism policies.

Quantifying the Relationship between Land Use Intensity and Ecosystem Services' Value in the Hanjiang River Basin: A Case Study of the Hubei Section

An increased land use intensity due to rapid urbanization and socio-economic development would alter the structure and function of regional ecosystems and cause prominent environmental problems. Revealing the impact of land use intensity on ecosystem services (ES) would provide guidance for more informed decision making to promote the sustainable development of human and natural systems. In this study, we selected the Hanjiang River Basin (HRB) in Hubei Province (China) as our study area, explored the correlation between land use intensity and ecosystem Services' Value (ESV), and investigated impacts of natural and socio-economic factors on ESV variations based on the Geographical Detector Model (GDM) and Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR). The results show that (1) from 2000 to 2020, land use intensity in HRB generally showed an upward trend, with a high spatial agglomeration in the southeast and low in the northwest; (2) the total ESV increased from 295.56 billion CNY in 2000 to 296.93 billion CNY in 2010, and then decreased to 295.63 CNY in 2020, exhibiting an inverted U-shaped trend, with regulation services contributing the most to ESV; (3) land use intensity and ESV had a strong negative spatial correlation, with LH (low land use intensity vs. high ESV) aggregations mainly distributed in the northwest, whereas HL (high land use intensity vs. low ESV) aggregations were located in the southeast; (4) natural factors, including annual mean temperature, the percentage of forest land, and slope were positively associated with ESV, while socio-economic factors, including GDP and population density, were negatively associated with ESV. To achieve the coordinated development of the socio-economy and the environment, ES should be incorporated into spatial planning and socio-economic development policies.

Coupling coordination analysis and spatiotemporal heterogeneity between sustainable development and ecosystem services in Shanxi Province, China

Excessive human activities destroy the structure and function of ecosystem and threaten sustainable development. As a typical resource-based area, Shanxi Province is facing an increasingly serious contradiction between ecosystem and sustainable development, with the overexploitation of resources. In view of this, the coupling coordination degree model was used to measure the association between sustainable development and ecosystem services (SDESs), and geographically and temporally weighted regression model was used to explore the correlation between SDESs and measure the correlation between ecosystem services (ESs) and sustainable development at the county level from 2000 to 2015 in Shanxi Province. The results showed an increase in the sustainable development level and all ESs except soil retention. The coupling coordination degree (CCD) of soil retention and sustainable development decreased, while other services increased. Habitat quality had the strongest negative correlation with sustainable development. There were obvious spatiotemporal heterogeneities in the CCD and correlation of SDESs, which is helpful for promoting regional sustainable development and optimize ecosystem decision-making.

Spatiotemporal Variation and Driving Forces Analysis of Eco-System Service Values: A Case Study of Sichuan Province, China

Sichuan Province is an important ecological barrier in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. Therefore, it is critical to investigate the temporal and spatial changes, as well as the driving factors, of ecosystem service values (ESVs) in Sichuan Province. This paper used land use data from 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 to quantify the spatiotemporal changes in the ESVs in Sichuan Province. Correlation coefficients and bivariate spatial autocorrelation methods were used to analyze the trade-offs and synergies of ESVs in the city (autonomous prefecture) and grid scales. At the same time, we used a Geographical Detector model (GDM) to explore the synergies between nine factors and ESVs. The results revealed that: (1) In Sichuan Province, the ESVs increased by 0.77% from 729.26 × 10⁹ CNY in 2000 to 741.69 × 10⁹ CNY in 2020 (unit: CNY = Chinese Yuan). Furthermore, ecosystem services had a dynamic degree of 0.13%. Among them, the ESVs of forestland were the highest, accounting for about 60.59% of the total value. Among the individual ecosystem services, only food production, environmental purification, and soil conservation decreased in value, while the values of other ecosystem services increased. (2) The ESVs increased with elevation, showing a spatial distribution pattern of first rising and then decreasing. The high-value areas of ESVs per unit area were primarily distributed in the forestland of the transition area between the basin and plateau; The low-value areas were distributed in the northwest, or the urban areas with frequent human activities in the Sichuan Basin. (3) The tradeoffs and synergies between multi-scale ecosystems showed that ecosystem services were synergies-dominated. As the scale of research increased, the tradeoffs between ecosystems gradually transformed into synergies. (4) The main driving factors for the spatial differentiation of ESVs in Sichuan Province were average annual precipitation, average annual temperature, and gross domestic product (GDP); the interaction between normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and GDP had the strongest driving effect on ESVs, generally up to 30%. As a result, the distribution of ESVs in Sichuan Province was influenced by both the natural environment and the social economy. The present study not only identified the temporal and spatial variation characteristics and driving factors of ESVs in Sichuan Province, but also provided a reference for the establishment of land use planning and ecological environmental protection mechanisms in this region.

Evaluation of Ecological Carrying Capacity and Identification of Its Influencing Factors Based on Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System: A Case Study of the Yellow River Basin in Shaanxi

Ecological carrying capacity (ECC), which requires simple scientific evaluation methods, is an important evaluation index for assessing the sustainability of ecosystems. We integrate an innovative research method. Geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) were used to evaluate the ECC of the Yellow River Basin in Shaanxi (YRBS) and to identify the underlying factors that influence it. A calculation method that combines RS and GIS data to estimate ECC based on net primary productivity (NPP) was established. The Carnegie–Ames–Stanford approach model was applied to estimate NPP. The NPP of each land type was used as an indicator to determine the yield factors. The ECC of the watershed was calculated with the carrying capacities of each land-use type. The geographical detector model was used to study the influencing factors of ECC, which provides a scientific basis for the formulation of ecological management policies in YRBS. The results show that from 2000 to 2010, it first decreased by 45.46%, and then increased by 37.06% in 2020, an overall decrease of 13.49 × 105 wha in 20 years. Precipitation is the dominant factor that affects ECC, while the impact of human activities on ECC was significantly enhanced during the study period. The developed method based on RS data serves as a reference for ecological evaluation in other similar regions.

Degradation or Restoration? The Temporal-Spatial Evolution of Ecosystem Services and Its Determinants in the Yellow River Basin, China

Ecosystem services (ESs) are irreplaceable natural resources, and their value is closely related to global change and to human well-being. Research on ecosystem services value (ESV) and its influencing factors can help rationalize ecological regulatory policies, and is especially relevant in such an ecologically significant region as the Yellow River Basin (YRB). In this study, the ecological contribution model was used to measure the contribution of intrinsic land use change to ESV, the bivariate spatial autocorrelation model was applied to investigate the relationship between land use degree and ESV, and the geographical detector model (GDM) and geographically weighted regression (GWR) were applied to reveal the impact of natural and socio-economic factors on ESV. Results showed that: (1) The total ESV increased slightly, but there were notable changes in spatial patterns of ESV in the YRB. (2) Land use changes can directly lead to ESV restoration or degradation, among which, conversion from grassland to forest land and conversion from unused land to grassland are vital for ESV restoration in the YRB, while degradation of grassland is the key factor for ESV deterioration. (3) According to GDM, NDVI is the most influential factor affecting ESV spatial heterogeneity, and the combined effect of multiple factors can exacerbate ESV spatial heterogeneity. (4) GWR reveals that NDVI is always positively correlated with ESV, GDP is mainly positively correlated with ESV, and population density is mainly negatively correlated with ESV, while positive and negative correlation areas for other factors are roughly equal. The findings can provide theoretical support and scientific guidance for ecological regulation in the YRB.

Enhancing Ecosystem Services in the Agro-Pastoral Transitional Zone Based on Local Sustainable Management: Insights from Duolun County in Northern China

Ecosystem and associated ecosystem services (ESs) in the agro-pastoral transitional zone of northern China (APTZNC) are sensitive to climate change and human activities. Essential to designing targeted policy interventions toward achieving sustainability in the APTZNC is a comprehensive understanding of the spatiotemporal changes in ESs and their drivers. This study identified the spatiotemporal changes in six ESs in Duolun County from 2000 to 2017. The impacts of drivers—temperature, precipitation, wind speed, vegetation cover (FVC), land use/cover (LULC), soil type, altitude, and slope—on the changes in the ESs in the county and its ecological production zones were then explored. The results indicated that the six ESs improved during the study period. The drivers influencing changes in ESs over time exhibited similarities across regions. Although FVC contributed to improvements in the food supply, grass production, carbon sequestration, and soil wind erosion (SLwind), it also reduced water yield, which may exacerbate the water shortage in arid and semi-arid areas. In regions where the ecology was in the recovery phase, especially in slope farmland, the inhibition of soil water erosion (SLwater) by FVC was easily offset by the higher SLwater potential from increased precipitation. The decrease in wind speed improved the regional ESs, whereas the increase in temperature posed a threat to SLwind. The drivers affecting the spatial patterns of ESs varied among zones. Across the three zones, the greater influential drivers of ESs were FVC and LULC. The impacts of topographic drivers and soil type on the distribution of ESs should also be noted in the agro-zone and agro-pastoral zone, respectively. Our study advocated that ES management should be adjusted to local conditions, and differentiated planning policies should be implemented in line with the ecological characteristics in the APTZNC, which will contribute to regional ecological sustainable development.