The Jerusalem Balsam: from the Franciscan Monastery in the old city of Jerusalem to Martindale 33

Frankincense diterpenes as a bio-source for drug discovery

INTRODUCTION

Frankincense (Boswellia sp.) gum resins have been employed as an incense in cultural and religious ceremonies for many years. Frankincense resin has over the years been employed to treat depression, inflammation, and cancer in traditional medicines.

AREAS COVERED

This inclusive review focuses on the significance of frankincense diterpenoids, and in particular, incensole derivatives for establishment future treatments of depression, neurological disorders, and cancer. The authors survey the available literature and furnish an overview of future perspectives of these intriguing molecules.

EXPERT OPINION

Numerous diterpenoids including cembrane, prenylaromadendrane, and the verticillane-type have been isolated from various Boswellia resins. Cembrane-type diterpenoids occupy a crucial position in pharmaceutical chemistry and related industries because of their intriguing biological and encouraging pharmacological potentials. Several cembranes have been reported to possess anti-Alzheimer, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and antimalarial effects along with a good possibility to treat anxiety and depression. Although some slight drawbacks of these compounds have been noted, including the selectivity of these diterpenoids, there is a great need to address these in future research endeavors. Moreover, it is vitally important for medicinal chemists to prepare libraries of incensole-heterocyclic analogs as well as hybrid compounds between incensole or its acetate and anti-depressant or anti-inflammatory drugs.

An overview on plants cannabinoids endorsed with cardiovascular effects

Nowadays cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the major causes for the reduction of the quality of life. The endocannabinoid system is an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of cardiovascular disorders due to its involvement in vasomotor control, cardiac contractility, blood pressure and vascular inflammation. Alteration in cannabinoid signalling can be often related to cardiotoxicity, circulatory shock, hypertension, and atherosclerosis. Plants have been the major sources of medicines until modern eras in which researchers are experiencing a rediscovery of natural compounds as novel therapeutics. One of the most versatile plant is Cannabis sativa L., containing phytocannabinoids that may play a role in the treatment of CVDs. The aim of this review is to collect and investigate several less studied plants rich in cannabinoid-like active compounds able to interact with cannabinoid system; these plants may play a pivotal role in the treatment of disorders related to the cardiovascular system.

Chemical Profiling of Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia Resin and Essential Oil: Ageing Markers and Antimicrobial Activity

Chios Mastic Gum (CMG) and Chios Mastic Oil (CMO) are two unique products of the tree Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, cultivated exclusively on the Greek island of Chios. In the present study, the method proposed by the European Pharmacopoeia for mastic identification was employed using HPTLC together with an in-house method. A GC-MS methodology was also developed for the chemical characterization of CMOs. α-Pinene and β-myrcene were found in abundance in the fresh oils; however, in the oil of the aged collection, oxygenated monoterpenes and benzenoids such as verbenone, pinocarveol, and α-campholenal were found at the highest rates. Additionally, the antimicrobial activity of Chios Mastic Gums (CMGs) with their respective Chios Mastic Oils (CMOs) was evaluated, with growth tests against the fungi Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, Mucor circinelloides, and Rhizopus oryzae, and the bacteria Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis, with the samples exhibiting a moderate activity. To our knowledge, this is the first time that an HPTLC method is proposed for the analysis of mastic and its essential oil and that a standardized methodology is followed for the distillation of CMO with a parallel assessment of the ageing effect on the oil’s composition.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Chios mastic gum (Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, Anacardiaceae): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Chios mastic gum constitutes a unique Greek product, produced exclusively in the southern part of the island of Chios. References about its use from local populations for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders or as a cosmetic agent can even be encountered in ancient texts of Galen, Theophrastus and Dioscorides. Nowadays, this versatile resin has been rediscovered, not only as a traditional remedy and aromatic agent, but as a potent phytotherapeutic product with various biological properties.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to quote the summation of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemical profile and pharmacological properties of the resin of Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia and thus provide the scientific community with a summary of the research conducted so far. Furthermore, perspectives and uses are being discussed and studied so as to broaden the field of its applications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive review of the literature on Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia was performed using as resources scientific databases such as Scopus, Sciencedirect, Pubmed and Web of science, studies and traditional books provided by the Chios Mastiha Growers Association as well as PhD and Master' s theses.

RESULTS

Chios mastic gum has been used as a traditional medicine over the last 2500 years. More than 120 chemical compounds have been identified in the resin and the major components are a natural polymer, acidic and neutral triterpenes and volatile secondary metabolites. Several plant extracts and compounds have been studied for their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective and anti-cancer properties in vitro and in vivo. Clinical interventions and trials have also showed the therapeutic potential of Chios mastic gum. In 2015 Pistacia lentiscus L., resin (mastic) was recognized as a herbal medicinal product with traditional use by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) with two therapeutic indications (mild dyspeptic disorders & skin inflammation/healing of minor wounds). Over the last years, Chios mastic gum is widely involved in medicinal products, food supplements and cosmetics and has become object of study, also in the field of Pharmacotechnology.

CONCLUSIONS

Chios mastic's beneficial properties have been demonstrated in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, wound healing, skin inflammations, plasma lipid and blood sugar reduction and oral care. These properties are attributed to triterpenes and volatile compounds. However, because of the resin's chemical complexity and the lack of commercial standards for its main compounds, there is a notable gap in literature concerning the biological evaluation of CMG's isolated components. Therefore, future research should focus on the development of efficient extraction, isolation and analysis techniques in order to unravel CMG's full pharmacological potential.

Chemical profiling and cytotoxic activity of 150-year old original sample of Jerusalem Balsam

Herbal formulations have been used in ethnomedicine and pharmacy around the world for thousands of years. One of them is Jerusalem Balsam (JB), which came into use in the seventeenth century. Today, people still produce and use it regularly as prophylactic supplement. JB has been widely used in Europe since the nineteenth century, as a remedy possessing antibacterial, antifungal and anti-inflammatory activities. The composition of the product was not known, although possible formulations were reported. In this study the original sample, which dated back to 1870, was investigated for chemical composition and cytotoxic activity. The obtained results were compared with results from more recently produced samples. Several tests were carried out, namely GC-MS, UPLC-PDA-Q-TOF-MS and MTT. Only the 150-year old sample showed a significant cytotoxic activity on cancer cell lines. At a concentration of 125 μg/mL after 72 h of incubation, the original sample inhibited almost 90% of cell metabolic activity, while contemporary samples showed none or little activity. None of the tested samples showed a significant impact on normal cells. These results may be attributed to the activities of benzoic acid and its derivatives, cinnamic acid derivatives, vanillin, group of sesquiterpenes and cembrene.

Protective effects of incensole acetate on cerebral ischemic injury

The resin of Boswellia species is a major anti-inflammatory agent that has been used for centuries to treat various conditions including injuries and inflammatory conditions. Incensole acetate (IA), a major constituent of this resin, has been shown to inhibit NF-κB activation and concomitant inflammation, as well as the neurological deficit following head trauma. Here, we show that IA protects against ischemic neuronal damage and reperfusion injury in mice, attenuating the inflammatory nature of ischemic damage. IA given post-ischemia, reduced infarct volumes and improved neurological activities in the mouse model of ischemic injury in a dose dependent fashion. The protection from damage was accompanied by inhibition of TNF-α, IL-1β and TGF-β expression, as well as NF-κB activation following injury. In addition, IA is shown to have a therapeutic window of treatment up to 6h after ischemic injury. Finally, the protective effects of IA were partially mediated by TRPV3 channels as determined by the TRPV3 deficient mice and channel blocker studies. This study suggests that the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities of IA may serve as a novel therapeutic treatment for ischemic and reperfusion injury, and as a tool in the ongoing research of mechanisms for neurological damage.

The pharmacy of the Benedictine monks: the use of medicinal plants in Northeast Brazil during the nineteenth century (1823-1829)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The health of nineteenth century Brazilians is only alluded to in historical documents, and researchers still have much to discover.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to show the medicinal plants used in the 19th century in Brazil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To this end, information was obtained from the prescription book deposited in the archive of the Monastery of Saint Benedict in Olinda, Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil, about the daily use of medicinal plants.

RESULTS

By analyzing the prescriptions, we ascertained the terms and/or species and diseases and/or symptoms that existed among the people who were treated at the Benedictine hospital between 1823 and 1829.

CONCLUSIONS

The data presented here are relevant to other subject areas, especially modern pharmaceutical research. This study seeks to demonstrate the importance of plant resources in the nineteenth century and aims, through the detailed study of documentary sources, to provide a wealth of new information to modern science. Understanding the practices of the past provides insight into and may lead to improvements in modern pharmaceutical practice.

The effects of olibanum administered to methimazole-treated dams during lactation on learning and memory of offspring rats

The effect of olibanum administered during lactation to methimazole-treated dams on the learning of offspring was evaluated. The animals were treated for 60 days from the first day of lactation period: group 1--tap water, group 2-0.03% methimazole and groups 3 and 4-0.03% methimazole with 0.25% or 0.125% olibanum, respectively. The serum thyroxin level in the offspring of group 2 was significantly lower than that of group 1. However, there was no difference compared to groups 3 and 4. In a Morris water maze, the distance and time latency to reach the platform in offspring of group 2 was significantly higher than groups 1, 3 and 4. In probe trial, the time spent in target quadrant (Q₁) by offspring of group 2 was lower than groups 1, 3 and 4. It is suggested that impaired learning and memory in the offspring of hypothyroid rats may be prevented by olibanum.

Anti-inflammatory activity of Chios mastic gum is associated with inhibition of TNF-alpha induced oxidative stress

Background

Gum of Chios mastic (Pistacia lentiscus var. chia) is a natural antimicrobial agent that has found extensive use in pharmaceutical products and as a nutritional supplement. The molecular mechanisms of its anti-inflammatory activity, however, are not clear. In this work, the potential role of antioxidant activity of Chios mastic gum has been evaluated.

Methods

Scavenging of superoxide radical was investigated by electron spin resonance and spin trapping technique using EMPO spin trap in xanthine oxidase system. Superoxide production in endothelial and smooth muscle cells stimulated with TNF-α or angiotensin II and treated with vehicle (DMSO) or mastic gum (0.1-10 μg/ml) was measured by DHE and HPLC. Cellular H₂O₂ was measured by Amplex Red. Inhibition of protein kinase C (PKC) with mastic gum was determined by the decrease of purified PKC activity, by inhibition of PKC activity in cellular homogenate and by attenuation of superoxide production in cells treated with PKC activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA).

Results

Spin trapping study did not show significant scavenging of superoxide by mastic gum itself. However, mastic gum inhibited cellular production of superoxide and H₂O₂ in dose dependent manner in TNF-α treated rat aortic smooth muscle cells but did not affect unstimulated cells. TNF-α significantly increased the cellular superoxide production by NADPH oxidase, while mastic gum completely abolished this stimulation. Mastic gum inhibited the activity of purified PKC, decreased PKC activity in cell homogenate, and attenuated superoxide production in cells stimulated with PKC activator PMA and PKC-dependent angiotensin II in endothelial cells.

Conclusion

We suggest that mastic gum inhibits PKC which attenuates production of superoxide and H₂O₂ by NADPH oxidases. This antioxidant property may have direct implication to the anti-inflammatory activity of the Chios mastic gum.

The beneficial effects of olibanum on memory deficit induced by hypothyroidism in adult rats tested in Morris water maze

Functional consequences of hypothyroidism include impaired learning and memory and inability to produce long-term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampus. Olibanum has been used for variety of therapeutic purposes. In traditional medicine, oilbanum is used to enhance learning and memory. In the present study the effect of olibanum on memory deficit in hypothyroid rats was investigated. Male wistar rats were divided into four groups and treated for 180 days. Group 1 received tap drinking water while in group 2, 0.03% methimazol was added to drinking water. Group 3 and 4 were treated with 0.03% methimazole as well as 100 and 500 mg/kg olibanum respectively. The animals were tested in Morris water maze. The swimming speed was significantly lower and the distance and time latency were higher in group 2 compared with group 1. In groups 3 and 4 the swimming speed was significantly higher while, the length of the swim path and time latency were significantly lower in comparison with group 2. It is concluded that methimazole-induced hypothyroidism impairs learning and memory in adult rats which could be prevented by using olibanum.

Boswellia resin: from religious ceremonies to medical uses; a review of in-vitro, in-vivo and clinical trials

Objectives

Despite its historical-religious, cultural and medical importance, Boswellia has not been thoroughly studied, and gaps still exist between our knowledge of the traditional uses of the resin and the scientific data available. Here we review the pharmacology of Boswellia resin and of the small molecules identified as the active ingredients of the resin.

Key findings

The resin of Boswellia species (‘frankincense’, ‘olibanum’) has been used as incense in religious and cultural ceremonies since the beginning of written history. Its medicinal properties are also widely recognized, mainly in the treatment of inflammatory conditions, as well as in some cancerous diseases, wound healing and for its antimicrobial activity. Until recently, work on Boswellia focused on the immunomodulatory properties of the resin and boswellic acids were considered to be the main, if not the only, active ingredients of the resin. Hence, this family of triterpenoids was investigated by numerous groups, both in vitro and in vivo. These compounds were shown to exert significant anti-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic activity in many assays: in vitro, in vivo and in clinical trials. We recently found incensole acetate and its derivatives, which are major components of Boswellia resin, to be nuclear factor-κB inhibitors, thus suggesting that they are, at least in part, responsible for its anti-inflammatory effects. Incensole acetate also exerts a robust neuroprotective effect after brain trauma in mice. Furthermore, it causes behavioural as well as anti-depressive and anxiolytic effects in mice. It is also a potent agonist of the transient receptor potential (TRP)V3 channel. It thus seems that incensole acetate and its derivatives play a significant role in the effects that Boswellia resin exerts on biological systems.

Conclusions

Altogether, studies on Boswellia resin have provided an arsenal of bio-active small molecules with a considerable therapeutic potential that is far from being utilized.

Incensole acetate: a novel neuroprotective agent isolated from Boswellia carterii

Boswellia resin has been used as a major anti-inflammatory agent and for the healing of wounds for centuries. Incensole acetate (IA), isolated from this resin, was shown to inhibit the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB, a key transcription factor in the inflammatory response. We now show that IA inhibits the production of inflammatory mediators in an in vitro model system of C6 glioma and human peripheral monocytes. Given the involvement of postinjury inflammation in the pathophysiology and outcome of traumatic brain injury, we examined the effect of IA on the inflammatory process and on the recovery of neurobehavioral and cognitive functions in a mouse model of closed head injury (CHI). In the brains of post-CHI mice, IA reduced glial activation, inhibited the expression of interleukin-1beta, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNAs, and induced cell death in macrophages at the area of trauma. A mild hypothermic effect was also noted. Subsequently, IA inhibited hippocampal neurodegeneration and exerted a beneficial effect on functional outcome after CHI, indicated by reduced neurological severity scores and improved cognitive ability in an object recognition test. This study attributes the anti-inflammatory activity of Boswellia resin to IA and related cembranoid diterpenes and suggests that they may serve as novel neuroprotective agents.

Incensole Acetate, a Novel Anti-Inflammatory Compound Isolated fromBoswelliaResin, Inhibits Nuclear Factor-κB Activation

Boswellia resin is a major anti-inflammatory agent in herbal medical tradition, as well as a common food supplement. Its anti-inflammatory activity has been attributed to boswellic acid and its derivatives. Here, we re-examined the anti-inflammatory effect of the resin, using inhibitor of nuclear factor-kappaB alpha (IkappaB alpha) degradation in tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha-stimulated HeLa cells for a bioassay-guided fractionation. We thus isolated two novel nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) inhibitors from the resin, their structures elucidated as incensole acetate (IA) and its nonacetylated form, incensole (IN). IA inhibited TAK/TAB-mediated IkappaB kinase (IKK) activation loop phosphorylation, resulting in the inhibition of cytokine and lipopolysaccharide-mediated NF-kappaB activation. It had no effect on IKK activity in vitro, and it did not suppress IkappaB alpha phosphorylation in costimulated T-cells, indicating that the kinase inhibition is neither direct nor does it affect all NF-kappaB activation pathways. The inhibitory effect seems specific; IA did not interfere with TNFalpha-induced activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. IA treatment had a robust anti-inflammatory effect in a mouse inflamed paw model. Cembrenoid diterpenoids, specifically IA and its derivatives, may thus constitute a potential novel group of NF-kappaB inhibitors, originating from an ancient anti-inflammatory herbal remedy.

Evolution of medical treatment for endometriosis: back to the roots?

Experimental evidence is accumulating to suggest that medicinal botanicals have anti-inflammatory and pain-alleviating properties and hold promise for treatment of endometriosis. Herein, we present a systematic review of clinical and experimental data on the use of medicinal herbs in the treatment of endometriosis. Although there is a general lack of evidence from clinical studies on the potential efficacy of medicinal herbs for the treatment of endometriosis-associated symptoms, our review highlights the anti-inflammatory and pain-alleviating mechanisms of action of herbal remedies. Medicinal herbs and their active components exhibit cytokine-suppressive, COX-2-inhibiting, antioxidant, sedative and pain-alleviating properties. Each of these mechanisms of action would be predicted to have salutary effects in endometriosis. Better understanding of the mechanisms of action, toxicity and herb-herb and herb-drug interactions permits the optimization of design and execution of complementary alternative medicine trials for endometriosis-associated pain. A potential benefit of herbal therapy is the likelihood of synergistic interactions within individual or combinations of plants. In this sense, phytotherapies may be analogous to nutraceuticals or whole food nutrition. We encourage the development of herbal analogues and establishment of special, simplified registration procedures for certain medicinal products, particularly herbal derivates with a long tradition of safe use.

Chios mastic gum modulates serum biochemical parameters in a human population

INTRODUCTION

Current research suggests that Chios mastic (Pistacia lentiscus var. chia) possesses beneficial (antimicrobial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective) properties. This study aims to assess its effects on cardiologic and hepatic biochemical indices of human subjects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Subjects (n=133, aged over 50) were randomly assigned to two groups, the first (high-dose group) ingesting daily 5g of mastic powder and the second receiving daily a Chios mastic solution (low-dose group). Serum biochemical parameters were determined on a monthly basis for an 18-month (high-dose group) and a 12-month (low-dose group) follow-up period. Generalized least squares random-effects linear regression was performed.

RESULTS

The group ingesting Chios mastic powder (high-dose group) exhibited a decrease in serum total cholesterol, LDL, total cholesterol/HDL ratio, lipoprotein (a), apolipoprotein A-1, apolipoprotein B (apoB/apoA-1 ratio did not change), SGOT, SGPT and gamma-GT levels; in the second (low-dose) group, glucose levels decreased in males.

DISCUSSION

Chios mastic powder could have a hepatoprotective/cardioprotective role in vivo in humans.

The botanical materia medica of the Iatrosophikon--a collection of prescriptions from a monastery in Cyprus

This article analyses the botanical material that is contained in the Iatrosophikon, a collection of prescriptions from a monastery in Cyprus written down during the island's Ottoman period (1571-1878). A total of 494 herbal prescriptions were detected in the record and 231 plants belonging to 70 different botanical families, as well as 21 various substances of botanical or mixed origin were identified. The distribution of the plants, the plant part used, the use of the material, and the mode of application are discussed. Parallels with other medical writings of the Greek-speaking Ottoman world suggest a local popular as well as a classical Greek and Byzantine influence. The latter is particularly supported by the relationship of the majority of the plants described to plants mentioned by Dioscorides. Additionally the question of what other sources might have contributed to this herbal knowledge is discussed. The results also show that most of the plants described originated from the island itself, only a minority of the botanical material presumably had to be imported. All the mentioned plants of local origin are also cited in modern ethnopharmacological studies on Cyprus, the Iatrosophikon demonstrates their use at a time from which no other written source of comparable detail exists.