Oldenlandia diffusa suppresses metastatic potential through inhibiting matrix metalloproteinase-9 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression via p38 and ERK1/2 MAPK pathways and induces apoptosis in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells

Phytochemistry, pharmacology, and medical uses of Oldenlandia (family Rubaceae): a review

The Oldenlandia genus comprises approximately 240 species of plants, yet only a limited number of these have been investigated for their chemical composition and medicinal properties. These species contain a wide range of compounds such as iridoids, anthraquinones, triterpenes, phytosterols, flavonoids, anthocyanidins, vitamins, essential oils, phenolic acids, and coumarins. These diverse phytochemical profiles underscore the pharmacological potential of Oldenlandia plants for various medical purposes. Among other chemical constituents, ursolic acid stands out as the most important active compound in Oldenlandia, owing to its proven anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and hepatoprotective properties. The evaluation of Oldenlandia's pharmacological prospects indicates that the holistic utilization of the entire plant yields the most significant effects. Oldenlandia diffusa showcases anticancer and anti-inflammatory capabilities attributed to its varying constituents. Across a broad spectrum of pharmacological capacities, anticancer research predominates, constituting the majority of medical uses. Oldenlandia diffusa emerges as a standout for its remarkable anticancer effects against diverse malignancies. Antioxidant applications follow, with O. corymbosa demonstrating potent antioxidant properties alongside O. umbellata and O. diffusa. Subsequent priority lies in anti-inflammatory studies, wherein O. diffusa exhibits noteworthy efficacy, trailed by O. corymbosa also takes the lead in antimicrobial activity, with O. umbellata as a strong contender. Additional investigation is essential to ascertain the relative significance of these species in various pharmacological applications. This comprehensive assessment underscores the multifaceted potential of Oldenlandia as a versatile herbal resource, offering diverse pharmacological capacities. The call for sustained exploration and research remains essential to unlock the full extent of Oldenlandia's medicinal benefits.

Extracts of Oldenlandia diffusa protects chondrocytes via inhibiting apoptosis and associated inflammatory response in osteoarthritis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a type of joint disorder that is marked by the gradual breakdown of cartilage and persistent inflammation of the synovial membrane, and is a leading cause of disability among elderly people worldwide. Oldenlandia diffusa (OD) is a member of the Rubiaceae family, and various researches have revealed that it possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor properties.Extracts of Oldenlandia diffusa is commonly used in traditional oriental medicine to treat various illnesses, including inflammation and cancer.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study is aimed at investigating the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptosis effects of OD and its potential mechanisms on IL-1β-induced mouse chondrocytes, as well as its characteristics in a mouse osteoarthritis model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the key targets and potential pathways of OD were determined through network pharmacology analysis and molecular docking. The potential mechanism of OD in osteoarthritis was verified by in vitro and in vivo studies.

RESULTS

The results of network pharmacology showed that Bax, Bcl2, CASP3, and JUN are key candidate targets of OD for the treatment of osteoarthritis. There is a strong correlation between apoptosis and both OA and OD. Additionally, molecular docking results show that β-sitosterol in OD can strongly bind with CASP3 and PTGS2. In vitro experiments showed that OD pretreatment inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory factors induced by IL-1β, such as COX2, iNOS, IL-6, TNF-α, and PGE2. Furthermore, OD reversed IL-1β-mediated degradation of collagen II and aggrecan within the extracellular matrix (ECM). The protective effect of OD can be attributed to its inhibition of the MAPK pathway and inhibition of chondrocyte apoptosis. Additionally, it was found that OD can alleviate cartilage degradation in a mouse model of knee osteoarthritis.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that β-sitosterol, one of the active components of OD, could alleviate the inflammation and cartilage degeneration of OA by inhibiting chondrocyte apoptosis and MAPK pathway.

3D Microfluidic System for Evaluating Inhibitory Effect of Chinese Herbal Medicine Oldenlandia diffusa on Human Malignant Glioma Invasion Combined with Network Pharmacology Analysis

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the anti-invasion efficacy of the ethanol extract of Oldenlandia diffusa Will. (EEOD) on a three-dimensional (3D) human malignant glioma (MG) cell invasion and perfusion model based on microfluidic chip culture and the possible mechanism of action of Oldenlandia diffusa Will. (OD).

METHODS

The comprehensive pharmacodynamic analysis method in this study was based on microfluidic chip 3D cell perfusion culture technology, and the action mechanism of Chinese medicine (CM) on human MG cells was investigated through network pharmacology analysis. First, the components of EEOD were analyzed by ultraperformance liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS). Then, cell viability and apoptosis were assessed to determine the optimum concentration of EEOD for invasion experiments, and two-dimensional (2D) migration and invasion abilities of U87 and U251 MG cells were evaluated using scratch wound and Transwell assays. The possible mechanism underlying the effects of EEOD on glioma was analyzed through a network pharmacology approach.

RESULTS

Thirty-five compounds of EEOD were detected by UPLC-Q-TOF/MS. EEOD suppressed the viability of MG cells, promoted their apoptosis, and inhibited their migratory and invasive potentials (all P<0.05). Network pharmacology analysis showed that OD inhibited the invasion of MG cells by directly regulating MAPK and Wnt pathways through MAPK, EGFR, MYC, GSK3B, and other targets. The anti-invasion effect of OD was also found to be related to the indirect regulation of microtubule cytoskeleton organization.

CONCLUSIONS

]EEOD could inhibit the invasion of human MG cells, and the anti-invasion mechanism of OD might be regulating MAPK and Wnt signaling pathways and microtubule cytoskeleton organization.

Ethyl Acetate Fraction of Hedyotis diffusa Willd Induces Apoptosis via JNK/Nur77 Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Background. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is characterized by poor diagnosis and high mortality. Novel and efficient therapeutic agents are urgently needed for the treatment. Hedyotis diffusa Willd (HDW) is used to treat cancers, especially HCC in China. Purpose. The study aimed to identify the main anti-HCC extract in HDW and to explore the mechanism of the active extract. Materials and Methods. The high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-QTOF-MS) method was used for the simultaneous determination of main compounds in the ethyl acetate fraction of HDW (EHDW). The toxicity test of different HDW fractions was carried out on larvae at 2 day-post-fertilization (dpf) for 72 h. The in vivo anti-HCC effect of different HDW fractions was evaluated on a zebrafish tumor model by immersion administration. The antiproliferative effect of HDW fractions was determined with MTT assay, as well as hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining assay. Hoechst 33258 staining was used to observe changes in nucleus morphology. Flow cytometry analysis was used to investigate apoptosis induction. Western blot analysis was used to examine apoptosis-related proteins, and key proteins in JNK/Nur77 signaling pathway. SP600125 was served to validate the apoptotic mechanism. Results. EHDW showed the strongest tumor cell growth inhibitory effect on zebrafish tumor model. Further study revealed that EHDW induced apoptosis in zebrafish tumor model and in cultured Hep3B cells. Meanwhile, it has been shown that the levels of BCL2-associated X (Bax), cytochrome c (cyto c), cleaved-caspase 3, and poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cells were upregulated. In contrast, the level of antiapoptotic B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) was downregulated in Hep3B cells. Additionally, EHDW activated JNK/Nur77 pathway by increasing the levels of p-JNK(Thr183/Tyr185) and p-Nur77(Ser351). Further study showed that blockage of JNK by SP600125 reversed EHDW-induced JNK/Nur77 pathway and the downstream apoptotic proteins. Conclusion. In conclusion, EHDW exerted the anti-HCC effect, which may be attributed to the activation of JNK/Nur77 pathway. This study supported the rationale of HDW as an HCC therapeutic agent.

Cancer and apoptosis: The apoptotic activity of plant and marine natural products and their potential as targeted cancer therapeutics

Cancer is a multifactorial, multi-stage disease, including complex cascades of signaling pathways—the cell growth governed by dysregulated and abrupt cell division. Due to the complexity and multi-regulatory cancer progression, cancer is still a challenging disease to treat and survive. The screening of extracts and fractions from plants and marine species might lead to the discovery of more effective compounds for cancer therapeutics. The isolated compounds and reformed analogs were known as future prospective contenders for anti-cancer chemotherapy. For example, Taxol, a potent mitotic inhibitor discovered from Taxus brevifolia, suppresses cell growth and arrest, induces apoptosis, and inhibits proliferation. Similarly, marine sponges show remarkable tumor chemo preventive and chemotherapeutic potential. However, there is limited research to date. Several plants and marine-derived anti-cancer compounds having the property to induce apoptosis have been approved for clinical trials. The anti-cancer activity kills the cell and slows the growth of cancer cells. Among cell death mechanisms, apoptosis induction is a more profound mechanism of cell death triggered by naturally isolated anti-cancer agents. Evading apoptosis is the major hurdle in killing cancer cells, a mechanism mainly regulated as intrinsic and extrinsic. However, it is possible to modify the apoptosis-resistant phenotype of the cell by altering many of these mechanisms. Various extracts and fractions successfully induce apoptosis, cell-cycle modulation, apoptosis, and anti-proliferative activity. Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop new anti-cancer drugs of natural origins to reduce the effects on normal cells. Here, we’ve emphasized the most critical elements: i) A better understanding of cancer progression and development and its origins, ii) Molecular strategies to inhibit the cell proliferation/Carcino-genesis, iii) Critical regulators of cancer cell proliferation and development, iv) Signaling Pathways in Apoptosis: Potential Targets for targeted therapeutics, v) Why Apoptosis induction is mandatory for effective chemotherapy, vi) Plants extracts/fractions as potential apoptotic inducers, vii) Marine extracts as Apoptotic inducers, viii) Marine isolated Targeted compounds as Apoptotic inducers (FDA Approved/treatment Phase). This study provides a potential therapeutic option for cancer, although more clinical studies are needed to verify its efficacy in cancer chemotherapy.

How Should the Worldwide Knowledge of Traditional Cancer Healing Be Integrated with Herbs and Mushrooms into Modern Molecular Pharmacology?

Traditional herbal medicine (THM) is a “core” from which modern medicine has evolved over time. Besides this, one third of people worldwide have no access to modern medicine and rely only on traditional medicine. To date, drugs of plant origin, or their derivates (paclitaxel, vinblastine, vincristine, vinorelbine, etoposide, camptothecin, topotecan, irinotecan, and omacetaxine), are very important in the therapy of malignancies and they are included in most chemotherapeutic regimes. To date, 391,000 plant and 14,000 mushroom species exist. Their medical and biochemical capabilities have not been studied in detail. In this review, we systematized the information about plants and mushrooms, as well as their active compounds with antitumor properties. Plants and mushrooms are divided based on the regions where they are used in ethnomedicine to treat malignancies. The majority of their active compounds with antineoplastic properties and mechanisms of action are described. Furthermore, on the basis of the available information, we divided them into two priority groups for research and for their potential of use in antitumor therapy. As there are many prerequisites and some examples how THM helps and strengthens modern medicine, finally, we discuss the positive points of THM and the management required to transform and integrate THM into the modern medicine practice.

Significance of cancer stroma for bone destruction in oral squamous cell carcinoma using different cancer stroma subtypes

Stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) can regulate the progression of numerous types of cancer; however, the bone invasion of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has been poorly investigated. In the present study, the effect of verrucous SCC-associated stromal cells (VSCC-SCs), SCC-associated stromal cells (SCC-SCs) and human dermal fibroblasts on bone resorption and the activation of HSC-3 osteoclasts in vivo were examined by hematoxylin and eosin, AE1/3 (pan-cytokeratin) and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining. In addition, the expression levels of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)9, membrane-type 1 MMP (MT1-MMP), Snail, receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) and parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) in the bone invasion regions of HSC-3 cells were examined by immunohistochemistry. The results suggested that both SCC-SCs and VSCC-SCs promoted bone resorption, the activation of osteoclasts, and the expression levels of MMP9, MT1-MMP, Snail, RANKL and PTHrP. However, SCC-SCs had a more prominent effect compared with VSCC-SCs. Finally, microarray data were used to predict potential genes underlying the differential effects of VSCC-SCs and SCC-SCs on bone invasion in OSCC. The results revealed that IL1B, ICAM1, FOS, CXCL12, INS and NGF may underlie these differential effects. In conclusion, both VSCC-SCs and SCC-SCs may promote bone invasion in OSCC by enhancing the expression levels of RANKL in cancer and stromal cells mediated by PTHrP; however, SCC-SCs had a more prominent effect. These findings may represent a potential regulatory mechanism underlying the bone invasion of OSCC.

Ursolic Acid Inhibits Breast Cancer Metastasis by Suppressing Glycolytic Metabolism via Activating SP1/Caveolin-1 Signaling

Breast cancer remains the most common malignancy and the leading causality of cancer-associated mortality among women worldwide. With proven efficacy, Oldenlandia diffusa has been extensively applied in breast cancer treatment in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for thousands of years. However, the bioactive compounds of Oldenlandia diffusa accounting for its anti-breast cancer activity and the underlying biological mechanisms remain to be uncovered. Herein, bioactivity-guided fractionation suggested ursolic acid as the strongest anti-breast cancer compound in Oldenlandia diffusa. Ursolic acid treatment dramatically suppressed the proliferation and promoted mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis in breast cancer cells while brought little cytotoxicities in nonmalignant mammary epithelial cells in vitro. Meanwhile, ursolic acid dramatically impaired both the glycolytic metabolism and mitochondrial respiration function of breast cancer cells. Further investigations demonstrated that ursolic acid may impair the glycolytic metabolism of breast cancer cells by activating Caveolin-1 (Cav-1) signaling, as Cav-1 knockdown could partially abrogate the suppressive effect of ursolic acid on that. Mechanistically, ursolic acid could activate SP1-mediated CAV1 transcription by promoting SP1 expression as well as its binding with CAV1 promoter region. More meaningfully, ursolic acid administration could dramatically suppress the growth and metastasis of breast cancer in both the zebrafish and mouse xenotransplantation models of breast cancer in vivo without any detectable hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity or hematotoxicity. This study not only provides preclinical evidence supporting the application of ursolic acid as a promising candidate drug for breast cancer treatment but also sheds novel light on Cav-1 as a druggable target for glycolytic modulation of breast cancer.

PI3K/AKT and MAPK1 molecular changes preceding matrix metallopeptidases overexpression during tamoxifen-resistance development are correlated to poor prognosis in breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Metastasis and drug resistance remain a persistent key clinical obstacle to the success of breast cancer treatments. Recent years have seen an increased focus on understanding the factors that influence metastasis and drug resistance.

METHODS

In this study, the changes in MMPs gene expression were investigated together with their regulatory pathways-PI3K, MAPK and NFKβ pathways-during the process of developing tamoxifen resistance in MCF7 cell line. Gene correlation maps and Kaplan-Meier survival plots among all breast cancer patients and patients treated with tamoxifen were evaluated.

RESULTS

MMPs gene expression was found to be up regulated in MCF7 cell line treated with tamoxifen during the development of tamoxifen resistance using two approaches. Up-regulation of gene expression of AKT1 and MAPK1 started in cells treated with 10 μM tamoxifen that was followed with up-regulation of other genes in these pathways and MMPs in cells treated with 35 μM tamoxifen. MMPs and genes from PI3K, MAPK and NFKβ pathways showed highly significant increase of expression at 50 μM or when cells were treated sequentially six times with 35 μM. Furthermore, increased genes expression was associated with aggressive pattern, clear morphological changes, higher growth rate, increased migration and adhesion potential and tamoxifen insensitivity. Breast cancer distant metastasis-free survival, and survival among tamoxifen treated patients had high expression levels of MAPK1, AKT1, TIMP2, MMP1, and MMP9 showed poor prognosis.

CONCLUSION

Early changes of MAPK1, AKT1 gene expression upon tamoxifen treatment could possibly be used as an early marker of resistance and future poor prognosis.

Nanoformulations of Ursolic Acid: A Modern Natural Anticancer Molecule

Background: Ursolic acid (UA) is a natural pentacyclic triterpene derived from fruit, herb, and other plants. UA can act on molecular targets of various signaling pathways, inhibit the growth of cancer cells, promote cycle stagnation, and induce apoptosis, thereby exerting anticancer activity. However, its poor water-solubility, low intestinal mucosal absorption, and low bioavailability restrict its clinical application. In order to overcome these deficiencies, nanotechnology, has been applied to the pharmacological study of UA.

Objective: In this review, we focused on the absorption, distribution, and elimination pharmacokinetics of UA in vivo, as well as on the research progress in various UA nanoformulations, in the hope of providing reference information for the research on the anticancer activity of UA.

Methods: Relevant research articles on Pubmed and Web of Science in recent years were searched selectively by using the keywords and subheadings, and were summarized systematically.

Key finding: The improvement of the antitumor ability of the UA nanoformulations is mainly due to the improvement of the bioavailability and the enhancement of the targeting ability of the UA molecules. UA nanoformulations can even be combined with computational imaging technology for monitoring or diagnosis.

Conclusion: Currently, a variety of UA nanoformulations, such as micelles, liposomes, and nanoparticles, which can increase the solubility and bioactivity of UA, while promoting the accumulation of UA in tumor tissues, have been prepared. Although the research of UA in the nanofield has made great progress, there is still a long way to go before the clinical application of UA nanoformulations.

Inhibition of cell migration and invasion by ICAM-1 binding DNA aptamers

Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide and most of the cancer-related deaths result from metastasis. As expressed on the surface of various cancer cell types, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) has been shown to play a role in the attachment, invasion and migration of tumor cells. In this study, DNA aptamers were generated against ICAM-1 by cell-SELEX and protein SELEX method using ICAM-1⁽⁺⁾ CHO-ICAM-1 cells and ICAM-1 protein, respectively. The pools obtained at the end of the 10th round of both SELEX were sequenced and the most enriched sequences were characterized for their binding behaviors and affinities to ICAM-1⁽⁺⁾ CHO-ICAM-1 and ICAM-1^(-) MIA PaCa-2 cells. Moreover, the inhibition abilities of sequences on migration and invasion were measured. The seven aptamer sequences were obtained selectively binding to CHO-ICAM-1 cells with K_d values in the ranging from 13.8 to 47.1 nM. Four of these aptamers showed inhibition in both migration and invasion of CHO-ICAM-1 cells at least 61%. All these results suggested that these aptamers have potential to detect specifically ICAM-1 expressing tumor cells and inhibit migration and invasion by blocking ICAM-1 related interactions of circulating tumor cells.

The Most Competent Plant-Derived Natural Products for Targeting Apoptosis in Cancer Therapy

Cancer is a challenging problem for the global health community, and its increasing burden necessitates seeking novel and alternative therapies. Most cancers share six basic characteristics known as "cancer hallmarks", including uncontrolled proliferation, refractoriness to proliferation blockers, escaping apoptosis, unlimited proliferation, enhanced angiogenesis, and metastatic spread. Apoptosis, as one of the best-known programmed cell death processes, is generally promoted through two signaling pathways, including the intrinsic and extrinsic cascades. These pathways comprise several components that their alterations can render an apoptosis-resistance phenotype to the cell. Therefore, targeting more than one molecule in apoptotic pathways can be a novel and efficient approach for both identifying new anticancer therapeutics and preventing resistance to therapy. The main purpose of this review is to summarize data showing that various plant extracts and plant-derived molecules can activate both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways in human cancer cells, making them attractive candidates in cancer treatment.

SLC6A15 acts as a tumor suppressor to inhibit migration and invasion in human papillary thyroid cancer

Solute Carrier Family 6 Member 15 (SLC6A15), a sodium-dependent neutral amino acid transporter, has been found with dysregulated expression in several kinds of cancers. However, the expression pattern and the biological functions of SLC6A15 in papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) remain unknown. In this study, we found that SLC6A15 was downregulated in PTC, which was related to N classification. Ectopic overexpression of SLC6A15 impaired migratory and invasive abilities of PTC cell in vitro. In addition, we identified intercellular adhesion molecule-1, a vital oncogene in thyroid cancer progression, was involved in the effects of SLC6A15 on PTC cell. These results indicate that SLC6A15 acts as a tumor suppressor and might be a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of PTC.

Preclinical Pharmacokinetic Interaction and Histopathological Analyses of Hedyotis diffusa on Sorafenib in Rats

Sorafenib is one of the most effective target therapeutic agents for patients with late-stage hepatocellular carcinoma. To seek possible alternative adjuvant agents to enhance the efficacy and improve the side effect of sorafenib, Hedyotis diffusa, one of the most prescribed phytomedicines for treating liver cancer patients in Taiwan, was evaluated in this work. We hypothesized that H. diffusa extract is a safety herb combination on the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of sorafenib. We designed treatments of sorafenib in combination with or without H. diffusa extract to examine its pharmacokinetic properties and effects on liver inflammation. The HPLC-photodiode-array method was designed for monitoring the plasma level and pharmacokinetic parameter of sorafenib in rat plasma. The pharmacokinetic results demonstrated that the area under the curve of sorafenib (10 mg/kg, p.o.) in combination with various doses of H. diffusa formulation (1, 3, and 10 g/kg, p.o.) for 5 consecutive days were 5560 ± 1392, 7965 ± 2055, 7271 ± 1371, and 8821 ± 1705 min μg/mL, respectively, no significant difference when compared with sorafenib treatment alone. Furthermore, the hepatic activity in rats administered with sorafenib with/without H. diffusa extract was quantitatively scored by modified hepatic activity index grading. H. diffusa extract in the range of 1 to 10 g/kg per day did not elicit significant herb-induced hepatotoxicity in rats, based on the histopathological study. Consequently, our findings provided positive safety outcomes for the administration of sorafenib in combination with the phytomedicine H. diffusa.

Therapeutic Effects of Ten Commonly Used Chinese Herbs and Their Bioactive Compounds on Cancers

Effective cancer therapy is one of the biggest global challenges. Conventional cancer therapies have been at the forefront of combating cancers, but more evidence showed considerable side effects, limiting their use. There are various new therapies in development, but combined approaches for treating cancer are much expected. Natural herbs had been traditionally in use for cancer therapy in most parts of the world. In this review, we have examined ten commonly used Chinese herbs that have, for centuries, shown effectiveness in treating cancers. They demonstrated the abilities to promote the apoptosis of cancer cells, inhibit their metastasis, activate the patient's anticancer immunity, and synergistically increase the efficacy of conventional chemotherapy and radiation therapy when used in combination. Clinical experiences had proved that these herbs and their bioactive compounds were effective against a plethora of cancers through a variety of mechanisms, effectively improving patients' quality of life without significant side effects. These advantages indicate that there are huge potentials in the development of Chinese herbs into cancer medicine as part of a promising, holistic cancer treatment modality.

miR-638 represses the stem cell characteristics of breast cancer cells by targeting E2F2

OBJECTIVE

The miR-638 acted as a tumor suppressor and E2F transcription factor 2 (E2F2) was a critical regulator in some cancers, while the role of them on stemness of breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) was rarely detailed. Hence, we focused on exploring the effects of miR-638 and E2F2 on BCSCs stemness.

METHODS

The proportion of CD24 -/CD44 + cells of BCSCs was detected by flow cytometry. The target relationship of miR-638 and E2F2 was explored using luciferase assays. The ability of self-renewal, proliferation, and invasion of BCSCs were determined by Mammosphere forming, Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), colony formation, and transwell assays. Xenograft tumor was established to detect the influence of miR-638 on tumor growth.

RESULTS

miR-638 was down-regulated, while E2F2 was elevated in breast cancer. The E2F2 level was negatively correlated with miR-638. The BCSCs represented higher proportion of CD24 -/CD44 + cells and levels of sex determining region Y-box 2 (SOX2) and octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (OCT4). The miR-638 was down-regulated and E2F2 was increased in BCSCs. MiR-638 could target to E2F2 and decreased the level of E2F2 in BCSCs cells. Overexpression of miR-638 decreased the proportion of CD24 -/CD44 + cells and the levels of SOX2 and OCT4 by inhibiting E2F2. The overexpression of miR-638 also inhibited the abilities of self-renewal, proliferation, and invasion of BCSCs by inhibiting E2F2. The miR-638 overexpression inhibited the breast tumor growth.

CONCLUSION

MiR-638 represses the characteristics and behaviors of BCSCs by targeting E2F2. MiR-638 may be a potential target for breast cancer therapy.

Promotion of Cell Death in Cisplatin-Resistant Ovarian Cancer Cells through KDM1B-DCLRE1B Modulation

Ovarian cancer is the gynecological malignancy with the poorest prognosis, in part due to its high incidence of recurrence. Platinum agents are widely used as a first-line treatment against ovarian cancer. Recurrent tumors, however, frequently demonstrate acquired chemo-resistance to platinum agent toxicity. To improve chemo-sensitivity, combination chemotherapy regimens have been investigated. This study examined anti-tumor effects and molecular mechanisms of cytotoxicity of Oldenlandia diffusa (OD) extracts on ovarian cancer cells, in particular, cells resistant to cisplatin. Six ovarian cancer cells including A2780 and cisplatin-resistant A2780 (A2780cis) as representative cell models were used. OD was extracted with water (WOD) or 50% methanol (MOD). MOD significantly induced cell death in both cisplatin-sensitive cells and cisplatin-resistant cells. The combination treatment of MOD with cisplatin reduced viability in A2780cis cells more effectively than treatment with cisplatin alone. MOD in A2780cis cells resulted in downregulation of the epigenetic modulator KDM1B and the DNA repair gene DCLRE1B. Transcriptional suppression of KDM1B and DCLRE1B induced cisplatin sensitivity. Knockdown of KDM1B led to downregulation of DCLRE1B expression, suggesting that DCLRE1B was a KDM1B downstream target. Taken together, OD extract effectively promoted cell death in cisplatin-resistant ovarian cancer cells under cisplatin treatment through modulating KDM1B and DCLRE1B.

Network-pharmacology-based identification of caveolin-1 as a key target of Oldenlandia diffusa to suppress breast cancer metastasis

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer remains the most common female malignancy and metastasis is the leading cause of death in breast cancer patients. Oldenlandia diffusa has been empirically and extensively used as an adjuvant therapy for metastatic breast cancer patients in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) with proven efficacy. However, its anti-metastasis mechanism has been poorly revealed.

METHODS

Multiple molecular biology experiments as well as network pharmacology, bioinformatics analysis were conducted to investigate the anti-metastasis mechanism of Oldenlandia diffusa in breast cancer.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that ethanol extract of Oldenlandia diffusa (EEOD) significantly inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis of high-metastatic breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-453, while having no obvious cytotoxic effect on multiple nonmalignant cells. Furthermore, EEOD remarkably suppressed the migration and invasion capacities of the above breast cancer cells by modulating the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) pathway. More importantly, EEOD also significantly inhibited breast cancer metastasis in zebrafish xenotransplantation model in vivo. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis further demonstrated that EEOD yielded 12 candidate compounds and 225 potential targets, and shared 85 putative targets associated with breast cancer metastasis. Mechanistically, RNA sequencing and experimental validation results suggested that EEOD might inhibit breast cancer metastasis by attenuating the expression of caveolin-1 (Cav-1) as overexpression of Cav-1 could weaken the anti-metastasis efficacy of EEOD.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our findings proved that EEOD could inhibit breast cancer metastasis by attenuating the expression of Cav-1, highlighting the use of EEOD as an adjunctive therapy for metastatic breast cancer patients. This study also provides novel insights into network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis as effective tools to illuminate the scientific basis of TCM.

Galangin Inhibits Thrombin-Induced MMP-9 Expression in SK-N-SH Cells via Protein Kinase-Dependent NF-κB Phosphorylation

Galangin, a member of the flavonol compounds of the flavonoids, could exert anti-inflammatory effects in various cell types. It has been used for the treatment of arthritis, airway inflammation, stroke, and cognitive impairment. Thrombin, one of the regulators of matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs), has been known as a vital factor of physiological and pathological processes, including cell migration, the blood–brain barrier breakdown, brain edema formation, neuroinflammation, and neuronal death. MMP-9 especially may contribute to neurodegenerative diseases. However, the effect of galangin in combating thrombin-induced MMP-9 expression is not well understood in neurons. Therefore, we attempted to explore the molecular mechanisms by which galangin inhibited MMP-9 expression and cell migration induced by thrombin in SK-N-SH cells (a human neuroblastoma cell line). Gelatin zymography, western blot, real-time PCR, and cell migration assay were used to elucidate the inhibitory effects of galangin on the thrmbin-mediated responses. The results showed that galangin markedly attenuated the thrombin-stimulated phosphorylation of proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase (c-Src), proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2), protein kinase C (PKC)α/β/δ, protein kinase B (Akt), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), p42/p44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Jun amino-terminal kinases (JNK)1/2, p38 MAPK, forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1), p65, and c-Jun and suppressed MMP-9 expression and cell migration in SK-N-SH cells. Our results concluded that galangin blocked the thrombin-induced MMP-9 expression in SK-N-SH cells via inhibiting c-Src, Pyk2, PKCα/βII/δ, Akt, mTOR, p42/p44 MAPK, JNK1/2, p38 MAPK, FoxO1, c-Jun, and p65 phosphorylation and ultimately attenuated cell migration. Therefore, galangin may be a potential candidate for the management of brain inflammatory diseases.

Esculentoside H inhibits colon cancer cell migration and growth through suppression of MMP-9 gene expression via NF-kB signaling pathway

A water-soluble saponin, Esculentoside H (EsH), 3-O-(O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-d-xylopyranosyl)-28-β-d-glucopyranosylphytolaccagenin has been isolated and purified from the root extract of perennial plant Phytolacca esculenta. EsH is known to be an anticancer compound, having a capacity for TNF-α release. However, the effects of EsH on migration and growth in tumor cells have not yet been reported. In the current study, the suppressive effects of EsH on phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced cell migration were examined in murine colon cancer CT26 cells and human colon cancer HCT116 cells. Interestingly, the transwell assay and wound healing show that EsH suppresses the PMA-induced migration and growth potential of HCT116 and CT26 colon cancer cells, respectively. EsH dose-dependently suppressed matrix metalloproteinases-9 (MMP-9) expression that was upregulated upon PMA treatment in messenger RNA levels and protein secretion. Since the expression of MMP-9 is correlated with nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling, it has been examined whether EsH inhibits PMA-induced IκB phosphorylation that leads to the suppression of NK-κB nuclear translocation. EsH repressed the phosphorylation level of JNK, but not extracellular signal-regulated kinase and p38 signaling when the cells were treated with PMA. Overall, these results demonstrated that EsH could suppress cancer migration through blockage of the JNK1/2 and NF-κB signaling-mediated MMP-9 expression.

Tissue necrosis and its role in cancer progression

Great efforts have been made in revealing the mechanisms governing cancer resistance and recurrence. The in-situ effects of cell death, caused by hypoxia and metabolic stress, were largely studied in association with inflammation. However, in this work, we focused on the direct effects of necrosis on cancer promotion and on the tumor microenvironment. The conditions leading to cell necrosis, upon nutrient and oxygen deprivation, were recapitulated in-vitro and were used to generate samples for computational proteomic analysis. Under these conditions, we identified clusters of enriched pathways that may be involved in tumor resistance, leading to cancer recurrence. We show that the content of necrotic cells enhances angiogenesis and proliferation of endothelial cells, induces vasculature, as well as increases migration, invasion, and cell-cell interactions. In-vivo studies, where MDA-MB-231 xenografts were exposed to necrotic lysates, resulted in an increase in both proliferation and angiogenesis. Histological analysis of tumor tissues revealed high expression levels of key mediators that were identified by proteomic analysis. Moreover, when cells were injected systemically, coupled with necrotic lysates, a higher number of large lesions was detected in the lung. Finally, using xenografts, we demonstrated that combining an antagonist of a necrotic signal with an anticancer treatment potentiates the prolonged therapeutic effect. This approach suggests a paradigm shift in which targeting late necrotic-secreted factors may increase survival and enhance the efficacy of anticancer therapy.

Alantolactone induces apoptosis and suppresses migration in MCF‑7 human breast cancer cells via the p38 MAPK, NF‑κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways

Human breast cancer is a malignant type of cancer with high prevalence. In the present study, the anticancer effects of alantolactone, a sesquiterpene lactone, on the human breast cancer cell line MCF‑7 were investigated in vitro. The MCF‑7 cell morphology changed from diamond to round subsequent to treatment with alantolactone, and the cell viability reduced significantly compared with that of the control cells. Alantolactone induced apoptosis of MCF‑7 cells by regulating the protein expression levels of B‑cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl‑2), Bcl‑2‑associated X protein, p53, caspase‑3 and caspase‑12, which are associated with the apoptotic pathway, and suppressed colony formation and migration by regulating the protein expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‑2, MMP‑7 and MMP‑9. Cell signaling pathway analysis confirmed that alantolactone increased the phosphorylation of p38, and decreased the nuclear expression levels of p65 and nuclear factor erythroid 2‑related factor 2 (Nrf2), suggesting that the apoptosis‑promoting and migration‑suppressing effect of alantolactone may partially depend on regulating the p38 MAPK, NF‑κB and Nrf2 pathways. These results also suggested that alantolactone may become a potential therapeutic strategy for treating breast cancer.

BCSC-1 suppresses human breast cancer metastasis by inhibiting NF-κB signaling

Breast cancer suppressor candidate-1 (BCSC-1; also termed von Willebrand factor A domain containing 5A and LOH11CR2A) is a newly identified candidate tumor suppressor gene that has been implicated in several types of cancer in previous studies. However, there have been few reports about the association between BCSC-1 and human breast cancer in recent years. In the present study, the expression of BCSC-1 in breast cancer was determined by immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining of tissue microarrays and clinical tissue specimens. Subsequently, BCSC-1 gene expression was evaluated in different breast cancer cell lines by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and the MDA-MB-231 cell line was selected for further use in subsequent experiments, due to its low BCSC-1 expression. An MDA-MB-231 cell line with stable overexpression of BCSC-1 was established through transfection with plasmid containing the BCSC-1 gene, and then screening for G418 resistance. Wound-healing, migration and invasion assays were conducted to detect the effect of BCSC-1 on MDA-MB-231 cells. Furthermore, changes in matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), osteopontin (OPN) and the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway were detected in the current study. Additionally, stable silencing of BCSC-1 expression in MCF-7 cells was performed using a lentivirus. The results of IHC indicated that BCSC-1 is expressed at low levels in breast cancer tissues compared with in normal breast tissue. Results of the wound healing, migration and invasion assays demonstrated that BCSC-1 overexpression reduced the metastasis ability of MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro. Further research confirmed that the BCSC-1 overexpression reduced the expression levels of MMP7, MMP9 and OPN, and the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65. Furthermore, inhibition of BCSC-1 via lentivirus-mediated RNA interference revealed that the downregulation of BCSC-1 increased the invasive ability of MCF-7 cells. In summary, the results demonstrated that BCSC-1 is expressed at low levels in breast cancer tissues, and that it can suppress human breast cancer cell migration and invasion, potentially altering the expression of MMP7, MMP9, OPN, and the activity of the NF-κB pathway. Therefore, BCSC-1 may be useful as a biomarker for the treatment of breast cancer in the future.

Dual-specificity phosphatase 6 (DUSP6): a review of its molecular characteristics and clinical relevance in cancer

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are the main regulators of cellular proliferation, growth, and survival in physiological or pathological conditions. Aberrant MAPK signaling plays a pivotal role in carcinogenesis, which leads to development and progression of human cancer. Dual-specificity phosphatase 6 (DUSP6), a member of the MAPK phosphatase family, interacts with specifically targeted extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 via negative feedback regulation in the MAPK pathway of mammalian cells. This phosphatase functions in a dual manner, pro-oncogenic or tumor-suppressive, depending on the type of cancer. To date, the tumor-suppressive role of DUSP6 has been demonstrated in pancreatic cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, esophageal squamous cell and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and ovarian cancer. Its pro-oncogenic role has been observed in human glioblastoma, thyroid carcinoma, breast cancer, and acute myeloid carcinoma. Both roles of DUSP6 have been documented in malignant melanoma depending on the histological subtype of the cancer. Loss- or gain-of-function effects of DUSP6 in these cancers highlights the significance of this phosphatase in carcinogenesis. Development of methods that use the DUSP6 gene as a therapeutic target for cancer treatment or as a prognostic factor for diagnosis and evaluation of cancer treatment outcome has great potential. This review focuses on molecular characteristics of the DUSP6 gene and its role in cancers in the purview of development, progression, and cancer treatment outcome.

Artemether suppresses cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in diffuse large B cell lymphoma cells

Artemether (ART), a derivative of the well-known anti-malaria drug artemisinin, demonstrates potent anti-cancer activity in various cancer cells, however its effects on lymphoma remain unknown. The present study demonstrated that ART significantly inhibited proliferation of diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) in vivo and in vitro, and led to G0/G1 phase arrest. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that ART suppressed the expression of the cell cycle proteins cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) 2, 4, and Cyclin D1, and specifically repressed the proto-oncogene c-Myc, rather than regulating the extracellular signal-regulated kinase or protein kinase B signaling pathways (two key pathways involved in regulating cell proliferation). In addition, high-concentration ART treatment significantly induced the apoptosis of DLBCL cells by promoting the cleavage of Caspase-3 and Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) 1. Overall, the data indicated that ART exhibited anti-cancer activity by inhibiting the expression of cell cycle genes and c-Myc, and promoting Caspase-3 and PARP1 cleavage, which suggested that ART may serve as a dual pharmaceutical for the treatment DLBCL.

Oleanolic Acid Alters Multiple Cell Signaling Pathways: Implication in Cancer Prevention and Therapy

Nowadays, much attention has been paid to diet and dietary supplements as a cost-effective therapeutic strategy for prevention and treatment of a myriad of chronic and degenerative diseases. Rapidly accumulating scientific evidence achieved through high-throughput technologies has greatly expanded the understanding about the multifaceted nature of cancer. Increasingly, it is being realized that deregulation of spatio-temporally controlled intracellular signaling cascades plays a contributory role in the onset and progression of cancer. Therefore, targeting regulators of oncogenic signaling cascades is essential to prevent and treat cancer. A plethora of preclinical and epidemiological evidences showed promising role of phytochemicals against several types of cancer. Oleanolic acid, a common pentacyclic triterpenoid, is mainly found in olive oil, as well as several plant species. It is a potent inhibitor of cellular inflammatory process and a well-known inducer of phase 2 xenobiotic biotransformation enzymes. Main molecular mechanisms underlying anticancer effects of oleanolic acid are mediated by caspases, 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, matrix metalloproteinases, pro-apoptotic Bax and bid, phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase/Akt1/mechanistic target of rapamycin, reactive oxygen species/apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1/p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor-κB, cluster of differentiation 1, CKD4, s6k, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, as well as aforementioned signaling pathways . In this work, we critically review the scientific literature on the molecular targets of oleanolic acid implicated in the prevention and treatment of several types of cancer. We also discuss chemical aspects, natural sources, bioavailability, and safety of this bioactive phytochemical.