Comparison of a sodium-based and a chloride-based approach for the determination of sodium chloride content of processed foods in the Netherlands

Preliminary Assessment of Essential and Potentially Toxic Elements in the Most Common Spices in a Developing Country: Health Hazard Implication

In the current study, total concentrations of essential and potentially toxic elements (Ba, Ca, K, P, Na, Mg, Cr, Ni, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, As, Cd, and Pb) in the most common nine spices (Nigella sativa, Capsicum annum, Piper guineense, Capsicum carvi, Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiber officinale, Piper nigrum, Cinnamomum verum, and Curcuma longa) of fields and markets of Bogra district (Bangladesh) were determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry following acid digestion. The findings of the study indicate a good source of essential elements like Ca, K, Na, P, Mg Fe, Zn, and Mn in spices. The average concentrations of K, P, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Ba, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ni, Cr, As, Pb, and Cd in spices were 697, 190, 168, 112, 97.2, 7.35, 6.29, 4.36, 4.21, 3.91, 2.99, 0.81, 0.17, 0.08, and 0.03 mg/kg, respectively. The concentrations of Cr, Cu, and Pb were higher than the recommended level (0.5, 4.5, and 0.1 for Cr, Cu and Pb), which indicates that people would experience potential risks from spices. The daily intake values of all the metals were lower than the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI). Considering child exposure group, total target hazard quotient (THQ) values for all studied elements from a single spice or all examined spices exceeded the threshold value (THQ > 1.0), indicating that the children posed a potential non-cancer risk to the potentially toxic elements. Consumption of Piper guineense, Nigella sativa, Cinnamomum verum, and Curcuma longa may pose carcinogenic health risk due to an incremental lifetime cancer risk (ƩTR) value higher than 10-4.

Genetic relatedness of Staphylococcus aureus isolates within food outbreaks by single nucleotide polymorphisms

Investigation of bacterial food outbreaks by whole genome sequencing can rely on the inspection of the genetic relatedness between isolates through the application of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) thresholds. However, there is no consensus for Staphylococcus aureus in the context of food outbreaks. In this study, we propose a SNP cut-off by taking into account the mutation rate and the evolution time of this pathogen in food. Through in vitro microevolution, we determined the mutation rate of three S. aureus strains grown under mimicked food stressing conditions. From the mutation rate, we set a cut-off of 28 SNPs considering 30 days as evolution time based on the average shelf-life of foods contaminated by S. aureus and the timeline for identifying this pathogen in outbreaks. The SNP threshold was applied to retrospectively study ten staphylococcal food outbreaks to assess whether isolates from food and/or of human origin from the same outbreak were epidemiologically related. To interpret SNP distances, phylogenetic tree topologies and bootstraps were integrated and showed that isolates differing by up to 28 SNPs were monophyletic. Our suggested cut-off can be used in outbreak management to identify closely related S. aureus strains.

Comparison between the sodium chloride content and labeled salt value of industrially prepared Japanese single dishes

Salt intake reduction is a global concern. In particular, Japanese consume higher amounts of salt than those of other ethnicities. The sodium content is mentioned on the label of industrially prepared dishes with an intention of reducing salt intake. This study aimed to evaluate the difference between the actual sodium content and labeled salt value of industrially prepared Japanese single dishes. Samples labeled "estimated" were collected and classified as Japanese, Western, and Chinese cuisines. The sodium content ranged from 180 to 1011 mg/100 g. The sodium content was higher than their reported values in other countries. Specifically, Chinese dishes contained high amounts of sodium, although the chloride content was similar across cuisine styles. Further, the molar ratio (i.e., sodium/chloride) had no significant effect on the difference between the actual content and labeled value. The measured salt contents were 20% higher than the labeled values. The results of decision tree analysis indicated that if the labeled salt value of stir-fried foods is determined by calculation, the actual sodium content is much higher than the labeled salt value. These findings are crucial for customers, dietitian, and researchers as they refer to the labeled salt value to determine the sodium content of industrially prepared foods.

Tri-frequency simultaneous ultrasound pickling for the acceleration of the NaCl content and quality improvement of pork (longissimus dorsi)

BACKGROUND

The pickling process with NaCl is an essential step for pork preservation. This study aimed to investigate the effect of different ultrasonic intensities of tri-frequency simultaneous ultrasound (TSIU) pickling on the NaCl content and quality of pork (longissimus dorsi). After 30 min pickling, the NaCl content, moisture content, pickling yield, cooking loss, textural properties, color, pH, moisture migration and distribution as well as microstructure of pork were assessed.

RESULTS

Results showed that among all the ultrasonic treatment intensities (85-150 W L-1), the NaCl content of the sample pickled by an intensity of 101.3 W L-1 was higher than that of other intensities. TSIU 101.3 W L-1 showed 59.95% higher NaCl content than the control sample. In addition, the sample treated with TSIU of 101.3 W L-1 had higher pickling yield and moisture content, better textural properties of pork (including hardness and chewiness), and less cooking loss. The results of the low-field nuclear magnetic resonance showed that, compared with the control group, the relaxation time T21 of the ultrasound-assisted pickling samples increased, while the proportion of T22 (A22) reduction ranged from 175.0% to 379.9%. The microstructure designated that the ultrasonic treatment could facilitate changes in meat texture.

CONCLUSION

Ultrasound marination of different intensities promoted the diffusion of NaCl and affected the quality of pork tenderloins. The TSIU at 101.3 W L-1 could better accelerate NaCl transport and homogeneous distribution on meat, thereby improving the sample quality. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Initiatives to Reduce the Content of Sodium in Food Products and Meals and Improve the Population's Health

Table salt is the main source of sodium (Na) in the human diet. Excessive supply of Na in a diet is strongly linked to many non-communicable human diseases, such as hypertension, obesity and stomach cancer. The World Health Organization recommends that daily intake of salt in adult diets should be kept below 5 g/person/day, which corresponds to 2 g Na/person/day. However, on average, adults consume about 9-10 g/person/day, and children and young people about 7-8 g/person/day. Initiatives to reduce salt intake include modifications of food composition in collaboration with the food industry, education of consumers, salt marking on foodstuff labels and taxation of salt. A need also exists to educate society so that they choose low-sodium products. In view of the food technology and amount of salt intake, the most important and the easiest change to make is to reduce the content of salt in baked goods. This paper analyses the results of surveys regarding strategies to reduce salt content in food products and considers multifaceted initiatives to reduce salt intake as a possible efficient method of improving the population's health status.

Chloride Ion-Selective Electrode with Solid-Contact Based on Polyaniline Nanofibers and Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Nanocomposite

Use of the nanocomposite of chloride-doped polyaniline nanofibers and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (PANINFs-Cl:MWCNTs) for construction of ion-selective electrodes with solid-contact sensitive to chloride ions has been described. Many types of electrodes were tested, differing in the quantitative and qualitative composition of the layer placed between the electrode material and the ion-selective membrane. Initial tests were carried out, including tests of electrical properties of intermediate solid-contact layers. The obtained ion-selective electrodes had a theoretical slope of the electrode characteristic curve (-61.3 mV dec^-1), a wide range of linearity (5 × 10^-6-1 × 10^-1 mol L^-1) and good potential stability resistant to changing measurement conditions (redox potential, light, oxygen). The chloride contents in the tap, mineral and river water samples were successfully determined using the electrodes.

Mechanism-based strategies to prevent salt sensitivity and salt-induced hypertension

High-salt diets are a major cause of hypertension and cardiovascular (CV) disease. Many governments are interested in using food salt reduction programs to reduce the risk for salt-induced increases in blood pressure and CV events. It is assumed that reducing the salt concentration of processed foods will substantially reduce mean salt intake in the general population. However, contrary to expectations, reducing the sodium density of nearly all foods consumed in England by 21% had little or no effect on salt intake in the general population. This may be due to the fact that in England, as in other countries including the U.S.A., mean salt intake is already close to the lower normal physiologic limit for mean salt intake of free-living populations. Thus, mechanism-based strategies for preventing salt-induced increases in blood pressure that do not solely depend on reducing salt intake merit attention. It is now recognized that the initiation of salt-induced increases in blood pressure often involves a combination of normal increases in sodium balance, blood volume and cardiac output together with abnormal vascular resistance responses to increased salt intake. Therefore, preventing either the normal increases in sodium balance and cardiac output, or the abnormal vascular resistance responses to salt, can prevent salt-induced increases in blood pressure. Suboptimal nutrient intake is a common cause of the hemodynamic disturbances mediating salt-induced hypertension. Accordingly, efforts to identify and correct the nutrient deficiencies that promote salt sensitivity hold promise for decreasing population risk of salt-induced hypertension without requiring reductions in salt intake.

Scientific advice related to nutrient profiling for the development of harmonised mandatory front-of-pack nutrition labelling and the setting of nutrient profiles for restricting nutrition and health claims on foods

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver scientific advice related to nutrient profiling for the development of harmonised mandatory front‐of‐pack nutrition labelling and the setting of nutrient profiles for restricting nutrition and health claims on foods. This Opinion is based on systematic reviews and meta‐analyses of human studies on nutritionally adequate diets, data from the Global Burden of Disease framework, clinical practice guidelines, previous EFSA opinions and the priorities set by EU Member States in the context of their Food‐Based Dietary Guidelines and associated nutrient/food intake recommendations. Relevant publications were retrieved through comprehensive searches in PubMed. The nutrients included in the assessment are those likely to be consumed in excess or in inadequate amounts in a majority of European countries. Food groups with important roles in European diets have been considered. The Panel concludes that dietary intakes of saturated fatty acids (SFA), sodium and added/free sugars are above, and intakes of dietary fibre and potassium below, current dietary recommendations in a majority of European populations. As excess intakes of SFAs, sodium and added/free sugars and inadequate intakes of dietary fibre and potassium are associated with adverse health effects, they could be included in nutrient profiling models. Energy could be included because a reduction in energy intake is of public health importance for European populations. In food group/category‐based nutrient profiling models, total fat could replace energy in most food groups owing to its high‐energy density, while the energy density of food groups with low or no fat content may be well accounted for by the inclusion of (added/free) sugars. Some nutrients may be included in nutrient profiling models for reasons other than their public health importance, e.g. as a proxy for other nutrients of public health importance, or to allow for a better discrimination of foods within the same food category.

Cooking loss in retail beef cuts: The effect of muscle type, sex, ageing, pH, salt and cooking method

The aim of the study was to compare cooking losses in beef (striploin and cube roll) during various cooking methods (grilling, roasting, broiling) in two different cooking devices (convection oven and clamshell grill). A total of 400 samples of meat were cooked (an internal temperature of more than 70 °C) and analysed. Cooking losses of slices of striploin ranged between 24.5% and 34.8%, with losses of 25.9-35.8% when whole cuts of meat were roasted. Losses fell within similar ranges (24.7-33.7%) for cube roll. Beef after 21 days of dry ageing showed generally lower cooking losses. Principal component analysis confirmed a strong negative correlation between cooking losses and salt content, saltiness and juiciness, which were positively correlated with one another. The majority of the sensory properties were positively correlated with pH, while their relationship with Warner-Bratzler (WB) test was negative. Roasting in a convection oven would seem to be the most suitable method of cooking striploin, followed by broiling in a convection oven, with grilling in last place. The highest score for the majority of sensory properties and the lowest WB values were recorded in meat roasted in a convection oven, particularly in the meat of bulls aged for 21 days.

Sodium in different processed and packaged foods: Method validation and an estimative on the consumption

Excessive sodium (Na) consumption can lead to serious health problems such as hypertension, and cardiovascular and renal diseases. Therefore, the food industry in worldwide has been trying to reduce sodium levels in processed products. The aim of this study was to validate a method and quantify sodium in processed and packaged foods and to estimate its ingestion in the consumption. In the first step, for choose the adequate analytical procedure different samples preparations (mineralization) were evaluated as wet and dry ash mineralization, as well as CsCl concentration to suppress chemical interferences for apply FAAS technique. The best performance conditions were applied for the analytical method validation: mineralization by wet digestion and adding 0.1% CsCl, which characterized the method as simple and low cost. The method was validated and was applied in 12 different processed food matrices (5 brands, 3 batches), including products of vegetable and animal origins, different majority components and interferences for Na evaluation. The results showed that sausage, hamburger, ham, bread, tomato sauce, ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise and mashed potato were classified as high-sodium foods, with mean values above 460 mg 100 g^-1. It was verified that 68% of the samples were regarded as having high sodium content and the maximum value found was 2851 mg 100 g^-1 for a sample of mashed potatoes. In addition, it was found that 38% of the samples presented differences in Na concentration when compared to content declared on the label. It is also observed that is possible different sodium ingestion according the combinations of processed and packaged foods in the same meal and, in this case, the sodium consumption is above than the daily value as recommended by the regulatory agencies. It was concluded that the majority of processed and packaged foods presented high sodium concentration even with efforts of the food industry to reduce the levels of this mineral and its remains an important public health problem.

Separating the effects of 24-hour urinary chloride and sodium excretion on blood pressure and risk of hypertension: Results from PREVEND

Objective

Research into dietary factors associated with hypertension has focused on the sodium component of salt. However, chloride has distinct physiological effects that may surpass the effect of sodium on blood pressure. This study aims to separate the specific effects of chloride and sodium intake on blood pressure.

Methods

We studied 5673 participants from the Prevention of Renal and Vascular End-Stage Disease(PREVEND) study. Urinary chloride(uCl) and sodium(uNa) were measured in two 24-hour collections. We used generalized-linear-regression to evaluate the relation of uCl and uNa with baseline blood pressure and Cox-proportional-hazards-analysis to assess the association with hypertension. Multicollinearity was assessed with Ridge regression.

Results

Baseline 24-hour uCl was 135±39mmol and uNa was 144±54mmol. The correlation between uCl and uNa was high (Pearson’s r = 0.96). UCl and uNa had similar non-significant positive and linear associations with blood pressure. In 3515 normotensive patients, 1021 patients developed hypertension during a median follow-up of 7.4 years. UCl and uNa had a comparable but non-significant J-shaped effect on the risk of hypertension. Adding both uCl and uNa to the same model produced instability, demonstrated by Ridge coefficients that converged or changed sign. The single index of uNa minus uCl showed a non-significant higher risk of hypertension of 2% per 10mmol/24-hour difference (HR1.02, 95%CI 0.98–1.06).

Conclusion

UCl and uNa had similar positive but non-significant associations with blood pressure and risk of hypertension and their effects could not be disentangled. Hence, the alleged adverse effects of high salt intake could be due to sodium, chloride or both. This encourages further study into the effect of chloride in order to complement dietary recommendations currently focused on sodium alone.

Dietary reference values for chloride

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) has derived dietary reference values (DRVs) for chloride. There are no appropriate biomarkers of chloride status, no balance studies and no adequate evidence on the relationship between chloride intake and health outcomes that can be used to set DRVs for chloride. There is a close relationship between sodium and chloride balances in the body. Sodium chloride is the main source of both electrolytes in European diets and similar urinary excretion levels of sodium and chloride (on a molar basis) are typically observed in Western populations. Hence, the Panel considered that reference values for chloride can be set at values equimolar to the reference values for sodium for all population groups, and are as follows: 1.7 g/day for children aged 1-3 years, 2.0 g/day for children aged 4-6 years, 2.6 g/day for children aged 7-10 years, 3.1 g/day for children aged 11-17 years and 3.1 g/day for adults including pregnant and lactating women. Consistent with the reference values for sodium, these levels of chloride intake are considered to be safe and adequate for the general EU population, under the consideration that the main dietary source of chloride intake is sodium chloride. For infants aged 7-11 months, an adequate intake of 0.3 g/day is set.

Dietary reference values for sodium

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) derived dietary reference values (DRVs) for sodium. Evidence from balance studies on sodium and on the relationship between sodium intake and health outcomes, in particular cardiovascular disease (CVD)-related endpoints and bone health, was reviewed. The data were not sufficient to enable an average requirement (AR) or population reference intake (PRI) to be derived. However, by integrating the available evidence and associated uncertainties, the Panel considers that a sodium intake of 2.0 g/day represents a level of sodium for which there is sufficient confidence in a reduced risk of CVD in the general adult population. In addition, a sodium intake of 2.0 g/day is likely to allow most of the general adult population to maintain sodium balance. Therefore, the Panel considers that 2.0 g sodium/day is a safe and adequate intake for the general EU population of adults. The same value applies to pregnant and lactating women. Sodium intakes that are considered safe and adequate for children are extrapolated from the value for adults, adjusting for their respective energy requirement and including a growth factor, and are as follows: 1.1 g/day for children aged 1-3 years, 1.3 g/day for children aged 4-6 years, 1.7 g/day for children aged 7-10 years and 2.0 g/day for children aged 11-17 years, respectively. For infants aged 7-11 months, an Adequate Intake (AI) of 0.2 g/day is proposed based on upwards extrapolation of the estimated sodium intake in exclusively breast-fed infants aged 0-6 months.

Estimation of salt intake and excretion in children in one region of Switzerland: a cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

Salt intake among children in Switzerland is unknown. The objectives of this study were to determine salt excretion and to identify the main dietary sources of salt intake among children in one region of Switzerland.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study using a convenient sample of children 6-16 years of age in Valais, Switzerland, between 2016 and 2018. All children visiting several regional health care providers and without any clinical condition that could affect sodium intake or excretion were eligible. Each child completed a 24-h urine collection to assess salt excretion and two dietary questionnaires to assess dietary sources of salt intake. Weight and height were measured.

RESULTS

Data were available on 94 children (55 boys and 39 girls; mean age 10.5 years; age range 6-16 years). The mean 24-h salt urinary excretion was 5.9 g [SD 2.8; range 0.8-16.0; 95% confidence interval (CI) 5.3-6.5]. Two-thirds (62%) of the children had salt excretions above recommendations of maximum intake (i.e., ≥ 2 g per day for children up to 6 years of age and ≥ 5 g per day for children 7-16 years of age). The salt excretion tended to be higher during the week-end (6.0 g, 95% CI 5.4-6.6) than during the week (5.4 g, 95% CI 4.3-6.7). The main sources of salt intake were pastas, potatoes, and rice (23% of total salt intake), pastries (16%), bread (16%), and cured meats (10%). One child out of three (34%) added salt to their plate at the table.

CONCLUSIONS

Salt intake in children in one region of Switzerland was high. Our findings suggest that salt intake in children could be reduced by lowering salt content in commonly eaten foods.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02900261.

Salt, sodium chloride or sodium? Content and relationship with chemical, instrumental and sensory attributes in cooked meat products

The aim of this study was to determine the salt content in selected cooked meat products by the methods of determining the sodium content and the content of chlorides. The resulting data was compared with other chemical, instrumental and sensory parameters of the analysed samples. A total of 133 samples of 5 meat products were tested. The sodium content ranged from 558.0 to 1308.0mgNa/100g. Salt level determined by the two methods strongly correlated and did not differ in any meat product. Intensity of salty taste of the product was independent on its salt content. The salt (sodium) content may be reduced without a negative impact on sensory or instrumental properties of meat products.

Analysis of bakery products by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy

In this study, we focused on the detection of Na in bakery products by using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) as a quick and simple method. LIBS experiments were performed to examine the Na at 589 nm to quantify NaCl. A series of standard bread sample pellets containing various concentrations of NaCl (0.025-3.5%) were used to construct the calibration curves and to determine the detection limits of the measurements. Calibration graphs were drawn to indicate functions of NaCl and Na concentrations, which showed good linearity in the range of 0.025-3.5% NaCl and 0.01-1.4% Na concentrations with correlation coefficients (R(2)) values greater than 0.98 and 0.96. The obtained detection limits for NaCl and Na were 175 and 69 ppm, respectively. Performed experimental studies showed that LIBS is a convenient method for commercial bakery products to quantify NaCl concentrations as a rapid and in situ technique.

The hidden hand of chloride in hypertension

Among the environmental factors that affect blood pressure, dietary sodium chloride has been studied the most, and there is general consensus that increased sodium chloride intake increases blood pressure. There is accruing evidence that chloride may have a role in blood pressure regulation which may perhaps be even more important than that of Na⁺. Though more than 85 % of Na⁺ is consumed as sodium chloride, there is evidence that Na⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations do not go necessarily hand in hand since they may originate from different sources. Hence, elucidating the role of Cl⁻ as an independent player in blood pressure regulation will have clinical and public health implications in addition to advancing our understanding of electrolyte-mediated blood pressure regulation. In this review, we describe the evidence that support an independent role for Cl⁻ on hypertension and cardiovascular health.