Mushrooms and agaritine: A mini-review

Exploring the biocompatibility and healing activity of actinobacterial-enhanced reduced nano-graphene oxide in in vitro and in vivo model and induce bone regeneration through modulation of OPG/RANKL/RUNX2/ALP pathways

BACKGROUND

The development of cost-effective, simple, environment-friendly biographene is an area of interest. To accomplish environmentally safe, benign culturing that has advantages over other methods to reduce the graphene oxide (GO), extracellular metabolites from actinobacteria associated with mushrooms were used for the first time.

METHODS

Bactericidal effect of GO against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, antioxidant activity, and hydroxyapatite-like bone layer formation, gene expression analysis and appropriate biodegradation of the microbe-mediated synthesis of graphene was studied.

RESULTS

Isolated extracellular contents Streptomyces achromogenes sub sp rubradiris reduced nano-GO to graphene (rGO), which was further examined by spectrometry and suggested an efficient conversion and significant reduction in the intensity of all oxygen-containing moieties and shifted crystalline peaks. Electron microscopic results also suggested the reduction of GO layer. In addition, absence of significant toxicity in MG-63 cell line, intentional free radical scavenging prowess, liver and kidney histopathology, and Wistar rat bone regeneration through modulation of OPG/RANKL/RUNX2/ALP pathways show the feasibility of the prepared nano GO.

CONCLUSIONS

The study demonstrates the successful synthesis of biographene from actinobacterial extracellular metabolites, its potential biomedical applications, and its promising role in addressing health and environmental concerns.

Mushroom β-glucans: application and innovation for food industry and immunotherapy

Among the most important sources of β-glucans are edible and medicinal mushrooms. These molecules are components of the cellular wall of basidiomycete fungi (mushrooms) and can be extracted even from the basidiocarp as the mycelium and its cultivation extracts or biomasses. Mushroom β-glucans are recognized by their potential effects as immunostimulants and immunosuppressants. They are highlighted as anticholesterolemic, anti-inflammatory, adjuvant in diabetes mellitus, mycotherapy for cancer treatment, as well as adjuvants for COVID-19 vaccines. Due to their relevance, several techniques of β-glucans extraction, purification, and analysis have already been described. Despite the previous knowledge of β-glucans' benefits for human nutrition and health, the main information about this topic refers to the molecular identification, properties, and benefits, as well as their synthesis and action on cells. Studies on biotechnology industry applications (product development) and the registered products of β-glucans from mushrooms are still limited and more common for feed and healthcare. In this context, this paper reviews the biotechnological production of food products containing β-glucans from basidiomycete fungi, focusing on food enrichment, and presents a new perspective on fungi β-glucans' use as potential immunotherapy agents. KEY POINTS: • Mushrooms' β-glucans for product development in the biotechnology industry • Biotechnological production of food products containing mushrooms' β-glucans • Basidiomycete fungi β-glucans are used as potential immunotherapy agents.

Not all bad: Gyromitrin has a limited distribution in the false morels as determined by a new ultra high-performance liquid chromatography method

Gyromitrin (acetaldehyde N-methyl-N-formylhydrazone) and its homologs are deadly mycotoxins produced most infamously by the lorchel (also known as false morel) Gyromitra esculenta, which is paradoxically consumed as a delicacy in some parts of the world. There is much speculation about the presence of gyromitrin in other species of the lorchel family (Discinaceae), but no studies have broadly assessed its distribution. Given the history of poisonings associated with the consumption of G. esculenta and G. ambigua, we hypothesized that gyromitrin evolved in the last common ancestor of these taxa and would be present in their descendants with adaptive loss of function in the nested truffle clade, Hydnotrya. To test this hypothesis, we developed a sensitive analytical derivatization method for the detection of gyromitrin using 2,4-dinitrobenzaldehyde as the derivatization reagent. In total, we analyzed 66 specimens for the presence of gyromitrin over 105 tests. Moreover, we sequenced the nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS barcode) and nuc 28S rDNA to assist in species identification and to infer a supporting phylogenetic tree. We detected gyromitrin in all tested specimens from the G. esculenta group as well as G. leucoxantha. This distribution is consistent with a model of rapid evolution coupled with horizontal transfer, which is typical for secondary metabolites. We clarified that gyromitrin production in Discinaceae is both discontinuous and more limited than previously thought. Further research is required to elucidate the gyromitrin biosynthesis gene cluster and its evolutionary history in lorchels.

Elucidating Heavy Metals Concentration and Distribution in Wild Edible Morels and the Associated Soil at Different Altitudinal Zones of Pakistan: a Health Risk Implications Study

This study evaluates macro-nutrient (MN) and prevailing heavy metal (HM) concentrations in wild edible morels (WEM) species viz., Morchella crassipes, Morchella pulchella, and Morchella eohespera and the associated soil that were collected from different altitudinal zones (Azad Kashmir, Murree, Swat, and Skardu) of Pakistan. A special emphasis on potential health risk analysis for HM in WEM consumption was also explored. In general, MN concentration in fruiting bodies and their associated soil samples were in the following order: potassium (K) > magnesium (Mg) > calcium (Ca) > sodium (Na) and Ca > Mg > K > Na, respectively. The concentration for HM in WEM ranged between 20.0 and 78.0 mg/kg, 1.09 and 22.1 mg/kg, 2.1 and 22.1 mg/kg, 0.26 and 13.1 mg/kg, 0.43 and 9.1 mg/kg, 1.07 and 7.0 mg/kg, 1.01 and 5.4 mg/kg, and BDL and 3.1 mg/kg for zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd), respectively, and those in underlying soil samples, lowest and highest HM concentration were recorded for Zn (33.7-113.6 mg/kg), Cu (13.0-40.8 mg/kg), Ni (3.1-23.0 mg/kg), Pb (1.3-22.0 mg/kg), Co (2.9-5.6 mg/kg), Cr (2.7-11.1 mg/kg), Mn (2.0-7.1 mg/kg), and Cd (1.1 mg/kg 7.6). Although, Cd, Pb, and Zn concentrations in some of the WEM samples and Cd in the soil had exceeded the permissible limits set by different organizations. The greater accumulation/or transfer potential for Zn, Co, Ni, and Cu were recorded in WEM from their associated soil. The health risk index (HRI) for HM in all assessed samples of WEM was < 1, predicting no risk to the consuming population. Furthermore, the correlation analyses depicted that the power of hydrogen (pH), low organic matter contents, and sandy texture are likely to be responsible for HM transfer to the lower pool of soil. But the increasing concentration of HM in WEM warrants threats and suggests further monitoring and future policy plan and implementation to avoid the potential health risks via its regular consumption.

Nutraceutical potential of mushroom bioactive metabolites and their food functionality

Numerous mushroom bioactive metabolites, including polysaccharides, eritadenine, lignin, chitosan, mevinolin, and astrakurkurone have been studied in life-threatening conditions and diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular, hypertension, cancer, DNA damage, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity attempting to identify natural therapies. These bioactive metabolites have shown potential as antiviral and immune system strengthener natural agents through diverse cellular and physiological pathways modulation with no toxicity evidence, widely available, and inexpensive. In light of the emerging literature, this paper compiles the most recent information describing the molecular mechanisms that underlie the nutraceutical potentials of these mushroom metabolites suggesting their effectiveness if combined with existing drug therapies while discussing the food functionality of mushrooms. The findings raise hope that these mushroom bioactive metabolites may be utilized as natural therapies considering their therapeutic potential while anticipating further research designing clinical trials and developing new drug therapies while encouraging their consumption as a natural adjuvant in preventing and controlling life-threatening conditions and diseases. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Diabetes, cardiovascular, hypertension, cancer, DNA damage, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity are among the world's largest life-threatening conditions and diseases. Several mushroom bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, eritadenine, lignin, chitosan, mevinolin, and astrakurkurone have been found potential in tackling these diseases through diverse cellular and physiological pathways modulation with no toxicity evidence, suggesting their use as nutraceutical foods in preventing and controlling these life-threatening conditions and diseases.

Macrofungi as a Nutraceutical Source: Promising Bioactive Compounds and Market Value

Macrofungi production and economic value have been increasing globally. The demand for macrofungi has expanded rapidly owing to their popularity among consumers, pleasant taste, and unique flavors. The presence of high quality proteins, polysaccharides, unsaturated fatty acids, minerals, triterpene sterols, and secondary metabolites makes macrofungi an important commodity. Macrofungi are well known for their ability to protect from or cure various health problems, such as immunodeficiency, cancer, inflammation, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity. Many studies have demonstrated their medicinal properties, supported by both in vivo and in vitro experimental studies, as well as clinical trials. Numerous bioactive compounds isolated from mushrooms, such as polysaccharides, proteins, fats, phenolic compounds, and vitamins, possess strong bioactivities. Consequently, they can be considered as an important source of nutraceuticals. Numerous edible mushrooms have been studied for their bioactivities, but only a few species have made it to the market. Many species remain to be explored. The converging trends and popularity of eastern herbal medicines, natural/organic food product preference, gut-healthy products, and positive outlook towards sports nutrition are supporting the growth in the medicinal mushroom market. The consumption of medicinal mushrooms as functional food or dietary supplement is expected to markedly increase in the future. The global medicinal mushroom market size is projected to increase by USD 13.88 billion from 2018 to 2022. The global market values of promising bioactive compounds, such as lentinan and lovastatin, are also expected to rise. With such a market growth, mushroom nutraceuticals hold to be very promising in the years to come.

Scenario Analysis of a Municipality’s Food Purchase to Simultaneously Improve Nutritional Quality and Lower Carbon Emission for Child-Care Centers

Public procurement has been highlighted as an important strategic tool to drive sustainable development. The present study aimed at providing direction for decreasing greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) by 25% for the food purchased by child-care centers in the City of Copenhagen while simultaneously providing nutritionally adequate, affordable and tasty menus. Baseline data were provided by compiling food purchase data with datasets matching each food item to a proxy food item and further with databases containing nutrient and GHGE information. For each food item, the edible amount was estimated in order to evaluate nutritional content and GHGE per 10 MJ. Two scenarios were modeled, i.e., a plant-rich diet and a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet directed at children two to five years old based on current purchase practice. Finally, the diets were translated into guidelines for menu planning. Amounts of pulses, nuts and seeds, as well as dark green vegetables and plant-based fats, were increased substantially in the two scenarios, while animal fat was decreased and the amount of meat was either reduced or eliminated in the plant-rich and lacto-ovo vegetarian diets, respectively. These kinds of changes in public food procurement have the power to significantly affect the transition toward a more healthy and sustainable food system.

Discovering the Potentials of Medicinal Mushrooms in Combating Depression - A Review

Depression is the most common form of mental illness and the major cause of disability worldwide. Symptoms of depression, including feelings of intense sadness and hopelessness, may occur after a specific event or in response to a gradual decline in health and functional status, often associated with aging. Current therapies for treating these symptoms include antidepressant drugs, counseling and behavioral therapy. However, antidepressant drugs are associated with mild to severe adverse effects, which has prompted the need for better treatment options. Medicinal mushrooms are valuable sources of food and medicine and are increasingly being used as supplements or as alternative medicines in standard healthcare. Numerous studies have provided insights into the neuroprotective effects of medicinal mushrooms, which are attributed to their antioxidant, anti-neuroinflammatory, cholinesterase inhibitory and neuroprotective properties. In this review, we comprehensively examine the role of these medicinal mushrooms in the treatment of depression. However, to apply these natural products in clinical settings, the therapeutic agent needs to be properly evaluated, including the active ingredients, the presence of synergistic effects, efficient extraction methods, and stabilization of the active ingredients for delivery into the body as well as crossing the blood-brain barrier.

Safety of Vitamin D2 mushroom powder (Agaricus bisporus) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on vitamin D2 mushroom powder as a novel food (NF) pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. The NF is an ingredient produced from Agaricus bisporus mushroom powder that has been exposed to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation to induce the conversion of provitamin D2 (ergosterol) to vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol). The NF contains concentrations of vitamin D provided by vitamin D2 in the ranges of 580-595 μg/g. The information provided on the manufacturing process, composition and specifications of the NF does not raise safety concerns. The applicant intends to add the NF in a variety of foods and beverages, including food for special medical purposes and food supplements. The target population is the general population except for food supplements and Foods for Special Medical Purposes (FSMPs), for which the target population is individuals above 1 year of age. The Panel concludes that the NF, used as an ingredient, is safe for the general population at the proposed condition of use in foods and beverages and that the NF used as a food supplement, is safe for individuals above 1 year.

Phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of wheat fermented with Agaricus brasiliensis and Agaricus bisporus

Solid-state fermentation with Agaricus brasiliensis and Agaricus bisporus on whole grain wheat was carried out. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of fermented wheat were determined. The results showed that the maximum values of polyphenols contents in wheat fermented with A. brasiliensis and A. bisporus reached, respectively (3.16 ± 0.21) and (3.93 ± 0.23) mg GAE/g, which were 2.90 and 3.61 times of unfermented control. By employing ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS), 18 kinds of phenolic compounds were identified from fermented wheat. Compared with control, only 4-hydroxy-benzaldehyde was the same compound. It indicated that fermentation with the two fungi changed polyphenols contents and phenolic compounds composition in wheat to a great extent. Among these phenolic compounds, except for 4-hydroxy-benzaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-benzoic acid and β-N-(γ-glutamyl)-4-formylphenylhydrazine, other 15 kinds of phenolic compounds were first identified from mushroom samples (including fruit bodies, mycelia and fermentation products). DPPH radical scavenging capacity, reducing power, ferrous ion chelating ability and inhibition of lipid peroxidation of fermented wheat were significantly stronger than control (P < 0.05).

Warning on False or True Morels and Button Mushrooms with Potential Toxicity Linked to Hydrazinic Toxins: An Update

Recently, consumption of the gyromitrin-containing neurotoxic mushroom Gyromitra sp. (false morel), as gourmet food was hypothesized to play a role in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis genesis. The present review analyses recent data on edibility and toxicity of false and true morels and Agaricus spp. Controversy about the toxic status of Gyromitra esculenta was due to variable toxin susceptibility within consumers. We suggest that Verpa bohemica, another false morel, is also inedible. We found a temporary neurological syndrome (NS) with cerebellar signs associated with high consumption of fresh or dried true morels Morchella sp. After ingestion of crude or poorly cooked fresh or dried morels, a gastrointestinal “haemolytic” syndrome was also observed. Agaritine, a water soluble hydrazinic toxin closely related to gyromitrin is present along with metabolites including diazonium ions and free radicals, in Agaricus spp. and A. bisporus, the button mushroom, and in mice after ingestion. It is a potential weak carcinogen in mice, but although no data are available for humans, a lifetime low cumulative extra cancer risk in humans can be estimated to be about 10⁻⁵. To conclude, a safety measure is to avoid consuming any true morels or button mushrooms when crude or poorly cooked, fresh or dried.

Effects of 4-week continuous ingestion of champignon extract on halitosis and body and fecal odor

This was placebo-controlled double-blind parallel-group comparative clinical trial targeting 80 men and women aged 50–79 years with halitosis and body and fecal odor. We investigated whether daily champignon extract ingestion for 4 weeks improved these conditions. Subjects were divided into four groups: a placebo group and 50, 500, and 1000 mg/day ingestion groups. No severe adverse events or side effects were noted during the study period. Compared with the placebo group, all champignon extract ingestion groups showed improvement or tendency toward improvement in halitosis and body and fecal odor. Furthermore, our results suggested that the effectiveness of champignon extract in alleviating odors is dose-dependent, i.e., it increases with the dosage.

Natural products containing a nitrogen-nitrogen bond

As of early 2013, over 200 natural products are known to contain a nitrogen-nitrogen (N-N) bond. This report categorizes these compounds by structural class and details their isolation and biological activity.

A review of chemical composition and nutritional value of wild-growing and cultivated mushrooms

Fruit bodies of about 200 mushroom species are consumed throughout the world, preferably as a delicacy. Knowledge of their chemical composition, nutritional value and health-promoting effects has expanded dynamically during the last few years. Dry matter (DM) is low: commonly about 100 g kg⁻¹ . The usual contents of protein, lipids and ash are 200-250, 20-30 and 80-120 g kg⁻¹ DM, respectively. Various carbohydrates form the remaining DM. Nevertheless, great variations occur both among and within species. Energy is low, usually 350-400 kcal kg⁻¹ of fresh fruit bodies. The nutritional contribution of mushroom protein derived from earlier data seems to be overestimated. Fat content is low with markedly prevailing in linoleic acid and oleic acid, while the proportion of n-3 fatty acids is nutritionally marginal. The main carbohydrates are chitin, glycogen, trehalose and mannitol. Information on fibre content and composition is limited. Health-promoting β-glucans are an auspicious group of polysaccharides. High potassium content is characteristic of mushrooms. Several species can accumulate very high levels of both detrimental trace elements, particularly cadmium and mercury, and radiocaesium isotopes if growing on heavily polluted substrates. Mushrooms seem to be a considerable source of ergosterol, provitamin D₂, and phenolids with antioxidative properties. Hundreds of flavour constituents have been identified, particularly with eight-carbon aliphatic chains. Data on changes of mushroom components under various preservation conditions and culinary treatments have been fragmentary. Even more limited is knowledge of nutrient bioavailability.

Postharvest application of methyl jasmonate for improving quality retention of Agaricus bisporus fruit bodies

The influence of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) on postharvest quality and enzyme activities, gene expression level, and the functional component content linked to postharvest deterioration in Agaricus bisporus (J.E. Lange) Imbach fruit bodies was investigated. Freshly harvested fruit bodies were treated with 0 (control), 10 and 100 μM MeJA vapor at 20 °C for 12 h and then stored at 10 °C for up to 7 days. The results indicated that treatments with 100 μM MeJA vapor maintained a high level of soluble protein and total sugar, delayed browning, promoted the accumulation of phenolics and flavonoids, and inhibited the increase of respiratory rate and membrane leakage. Furthermore, 100 μM MeJA inhibited the activities of polyphenoloxidase, increased the antioxidant enzymes activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase, and lowered relative expression levels of three genes encoding polyphenol oxidase (AbPPO1, AbPPO2, and AbPPO3) throughout the storage period. Comparatively, 10 μM MeJA also had a clear beneficial effect on postharvest mushroom quality maintenance but was not as effective as 100 μM MeJA treatment. These findings suggest that application of MeJA could have potential in maintaining the quality of harvested A. bisporus fruit bodies.

Vitamin D mushrooms: comparison of the composition of button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) treated postharvest with UVB light or sunlight

This study compared the compositional changes in mushrooms exposed to sunlight with those occurring after commercial ultraviolet (UV) light processing. Button mushrooms (75 kg) were processed in the presence or absence of UVB light; a third group was exposed to direct sunlight. Mushroom composition was evaluated using chemical analyses. Vitamin D concentrations were 5, 410, and 374 μg/100 g (dw) in control, UVB, and sunlight groups, respectively. On a dry weight basis, no significant changes in vitamin C, folate, vitamins B(6), vitamin B(5), riboflavin, niacin, amino acids, fatty acids, ergosterol, or agaritine were observed following UVB processing. Sunlight exposure resulted in a 26% loss of riboflavin, evidence of folate oxidation, and unexplained increases in ergosterol (9.5%). It was concluded that compositional effects of UVB light are limited to changes in vitamin D and show no detrimental changes relative to natural sunlight exposure and, therefore, provide important information relevant to the suitability and safety of UVB light technology for vitamin D enhanced mushrooms.