The encapsulation of hydroxytyrosol-rich olive oil in Eudraguard® protect via supercritical fluid extraction of emulsions

Emerging encapsulation strategies for vitamin A fortification in food sector: an overview

Micro- and nano-encapsulation techniques, such as microfluidization, spray drying, and centrifugal extrusion, have been widely utilized in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics, and agriculture, to improve the stability, shelf life, and bioavailability of active ingredients, such as vitamin A. Emulsion-based delivery platforms offer feasible and appropriate alternatives for safeguarding, encapsulating, and transporting bioactive compounds. Therefore, there is a need to enrich our basic diet to prevent vitamin A deficiency within a population. This review focused on addressing vitamin A shortages, encapsulation techniques for improving the delivery of vital vitamins A and their food applications. Additionally, more studies are required to guarantee the security of nano-delivery strategies, as they proliferate in the food and beverage sector.

Graphical Abstract

Modelling and Scaling-Up of a Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Emulsions Process

Supercritical CO2 (scCO2) is utilized in the supercritical fluid extraction of emulsions (SFEE) to swiftly extract the organic phase (O) from an O/W emulsion. The dissolved substances in the organic phase precipitate into small particles and remain suspended in the water (W) with the aid of a surfactant. The process can be continuously conducted using a packed column in a counter-current flow of the emulsion and scCO2, at moderate pressure (8–10 MPa) and temperature (37–40 °C). To ensure the commercial viability of this technique, the organic solvent must be separated from the CO2 to facilitate the recirculation of both streams within the process while minimizing environmental impact. Thus, the aim of this work was to design a plant to produce submicron materials using SFEE, integrating the recovery of both solvents. First, experimental equilibrium data of the ternary system involved (CO2/ethyl acetate/water) were fitted with a proper thermodynamic model. Then, simulations of the whole integrated process at different scales were carried out using Aspen Plus®, along with economical evaluations. This work proposes the organic solvent separation with a distillation column. Thus, the two solvents can be recovered and recycled to the process in almost their entirety. Furthermore, the particles in the aqueous raffinate are produced free of solvents and sterilized for further safe use. The costs showed an important economy scale-up. This work could ease the transfer of the SFEE technology to the industry.

Eudraguard® Natural and Protect: New "Food Grade" Matrices for the Delivery of an Extract from Sorbus domestica L. Leaves Active on the α-Glucosidase Enzyme

(1) Background: Eudraguard^® Natural (EN) and Protect (EP) are polymers regulated for use in dietary supplements in the European Union and the United States to carry natural products, mask unpleasant smells and tastes, ameliorate product handling, and protect products from moisture, light, and oxidation. Moreover, EN and EP can control the release of encapsulated compounds. The aim of this work was the development, preparation, and control of Eudraguard^® spray-drying microparticles to obtain powders with easy handling and a stable dietary supplement containing a polar functional extract (SOE) from Sorbus domestica L. leaves. (2) Methods: SOE was characterized using HPLC, NMR, FTIR, DSC, and SEM methods. Furthermore, the SOE's antioxidant/free radical scavenging activity, α-glucosidase inhibition, MTT assay effect on viability in normal cells, and shelf life were evaluated in both the extract and final formulations. (3) Results: The data suggested that SOE, rich in flavonoids, is a bioactive and safe extract; however, from a technological point of view, it was sticky, difficult to handle, and had low aqueous solubility. Despite the fact that EN and EP may undergo changes with spray-drying, they effectively produced easy-to-handle micro-powders with a controlled release profile. Although EN had a weaker capability to coat SOE than EP, EN acted as a substrate that was able to swell, drawing in water and improving the extract solubility and dissolution/release; however, EP was also able to carry the extract and provide SOE with controlled release. (4) Conclusion: Both Eudraguard^® products were capable of carrying SOE and improving its antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibition activities, as well as the extract stability and handling.

Polycaprolactone/epoxide-functionalized silica composite microparticles for long-term controlled release of trans-chalcone

In this study, controlled release of trans-chalcone was achieved by using a polycaprolactone-based hybrid system as the drug carrier material. Encapsulation efficiency was obtained in the range of 70–75% for various formulations and in vitro release studies, conducted at 37 °C and pH 7.4, revealed slow profile reaching 60% cumulative release. As interpreted from kinetic modelling, drug release was controlled mainly by Fickian diffusion; polymer erosion did not contribute to the TC release. Difference in drug loading efficiencies of the hybrid and neat PCL microparticles was observed such that PCL microparticles had lower loading efficiency than the hybrid microparticles whereas the release profiles were similar. pH of the release medium had affected release profiles; acidic medium enhanced drug release. Characterization of the microparticles were realized by FT-IR, TGA, DSC, SEM and WCA which revealed key properties such as molecular dispersion state and hydrophilicity. With the results obtained, we concluded that our hybrid system has a significant potential for long term release of trans-chalcone.

Enzymatic PCL-grafting to NH2-end grouped silica and development of microspheres for pH-stimulated release of a hydrophobic model drug

This study set out to evaluate novel PCL-based silica containing nanohybrids as the polymer matrix in a hydrophobic drug-loaded microsphere system. Nanohybrids were synthesized by PCL-grafting to NH₂-end grouped silica by in situ enzymatic ring opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone. Molecular weight and monomer conversion, PCL grafting percentage, thermal properties and crystallinity of the nanohybrids were determined by ¹H NMR, TGA, DSC and XRD. Synthesized nanohybrids had low crystallinity percentage (32 and 39 %) and molecular weight (4800 and 8700 g/mol), promising for controlled drug release applications. The nanohybrids were used for fabrication of trans-chalcone-loaded microspheres by O/W single emulsion solvent evaporation. Mean particle diameter of the microspheres were between 15 and 30 µm. The result of release studies showed that optimum microsphere formulations (AP4 and A2, respectively) had 61 and 64 % encapsulation efficiency. One of the more significant findings to emerge from this investigation is that TC release was extended to 16 and 37 days, in a controlled manner. TC release was significantly enhanced in acidic pH media (pH 3.6 and 5.6) indicating pH-dependent release from nanohybrid microspheres; releasing 80-100 % of the loaded drug in 4-14 days. Drug/polymer interactions and molecular structures were investigated by FT-IR spectroscopy and DSC analysis. According to the results obtained, enzymatically synthesized nanohybrids have potential for pH-dependent release of the model drug, trans-chalcone.

Oleuropein-Enriched Extract From Olive Mill Leaves by Homogenizer-Assisted Extraction and Its Antioxidant and Antiglycating Activities

Olive oil consumption has increased in the last two decades and consequently, its wastes have increased, which generates a tremendous environmental impact. Among the by-products are the olive mill leaves, which are easier and inexpensive to treat than other olive by-products. However, little research has been done on their chemical composition and potential bioactivity. Hence, in this study, olive mill leaves were used to obtain Oleuropein-Enriched Extracts (OLEU-EE) using Conventional Extraction, Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction, and Homogenization-Assisted Extraction. These three techniques were evaluated using a Factorial Design to determine the parameters to obtain an OLEU-EE with high contents of Total Phenolic Compounds (TPC), Antioxidant Activity (AA), and Oleuropein concentration (OLEU). From the results, the Homogenizer-Assisted Extraction (HAE) technique was selected at 18,000 rpm, solid:liquid ratio 1:10, and 30 s of homogenization with 70% ethanol, due to its high TPC (5,196 mg GA/100 g), AA (57,867 μmol of TE/100 g), and OLEU (4,345 mg of OLEU/100 g). In addition, the antiglycating effect of OLEU-EE on the levels of (1) fluorescent Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs) were IC50 of 0.1899 and 0.1697 mg/mL for 1λEXC 325/λEM 440 and 2λEXC 389/λEM 443, respectively; (2) protein oxidative damage markers such as dityrosine (DiTyr), N-formylkynurenine (N-formyl Kyn), and kynurenine (Kyn) were IC50 of 0.1852, 0.2044, and 0.1720 mg/mL, respectively. In conclusion, OLEU-EE from olive mill leaves has different capacities to inhibit AGEs evidenced by the IC50 of fluorescent AGEs and protein oxidation products, together with the scavenging free radical evidenced by the concentration of Trolox Equivalent. Therefore, OLEU-EE could be potential functional ingredients that prevent oxidative damage caused by free radicals and AGEs accumulation.

Strategies to Broaden the Applications of Olive Biophenols Oleuropein and Hydroxytyrosol in Food Products

Oleuropein (OLE) and hydroxytyrosol (HT) are olive-derived phenols recognised as health-promoting agents with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, antifungal, antimicrobial, and antitumor activities, providing a wide range of applications as functional food ingredients. HT is Generally Recognised as Safe (GRAS) by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), whereas OLE is included in EFSA daily consumptions recommendations, albeit there is no official GRAS status for its pure form. Their application in food, however, may be hindered by challenges such as degradation caused by processing conditions and undesired sensorial properties (e.g., the astringency of OLE). Among the strategies to overcome such setbacks, the encapsulation in delivery systems and the covalent and non-covalent complexation are highlighted in this review. Additionally, the synthesis of OLE and HT derivatives are studied to improve their applicability. All in all, more research needs however to be carried out to investigate the impact of these approaches on the sensory properties of the final food product and its percussions at the gastrointestinal level, as well as on bioactivity. At last limitations of these approaches at a scale of the food industry must also be considered.

Nanoparticles and Nanocrystals by Supercritical CO2-Assisted Techniques for Pharmaceutical Applications: A Review

Many active ingredients currently prescribed show limited therapeutic efficacy, mainly due to their dissolution rate inadequate to treat the pathology of interest. A large drug particle size creates an additional problem if a specific site of action in the human body has to be reached. For this reason, active ingredient size reduction using micronization/nanonization techniques is a valid approach to improve the efficacy of active compounds. Supercritical carbon-dioxide-assisted technologies enable the production of different morphologies of different sizes, including nanoparticles and nanocrystals, by modulating operating conditions. Supercritical fluid-based processes have numerous advantages over techniques conventionally employed to produce nanosized particles or crystals, such as reduced use of toxic solvents, which are completely removed from the final product, ensuring safety for patients. Active compounds can be processed alone by supercritical techniques, although polymeric carriers are often added as stabilizers, to control the drug release on the basis of the desired therapeutic effect, as well as to improve drug processability with the chosen technology. This updated review on the application of supercritical micronization/nanonization techniques in the pharmaceutical field aims at highlighting the most effective current results, operating conditions, advantages, and limitations, providing future perspectives.

Towards Green Nanoscience: From extraction to nanoformulation

The use of nanotechnology has revolutionized many biotechnological sectors, from bioengineering to medicine, passing through food and cosmetic fields. However, their clinic and industrial application has been into the spotlight due to their safety risk and related side effects. As a result, Green Nanoscience/Nanotechnology emerged as a strategy to prevent any associated nanotoxicity, via implementation of sustainable processes across the whole lifecycle of nanoformulation. Notwithstanding its success across inorganic nanoparticles, the green concept for organic nanoparticle elaboration is still at its infancy. This, coupled with the organic nanoparticles being the most commonly used in biomedicine, highlights the need to implement specific green principles for their elaboration. In this review, we will discuss the possible green routes for the proper design of organic nanoparticles under the umbrella of Green Nanoscience: from the extraction of nanomaterials and active compounds to their final nanoformulation.