Safety of red ginseng oil for single oral administration in Sprague-Dawley rats

Effects of red ginseng oil(KGC11o) on testosterone-propionate-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia

Background

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a disease characterized by abnormal proliferation of the prostate, which occurs frequently in middle-aged men. In this study, we report the effect of red ginseng oil (KGC11o) on BPH.

Methods

The BPH-induced Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into seven groups: control, BPH, KGC11o 25, 50, 100, 200, and finasteride groups. KGC11o and finasteride were administered for 8 weeks. The BPH biomarkers, DHT, 5AR1, and 5AR2, androgen receptor, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), Bax, Bcl-2, and TGF-β were determined in the serum and prostate tissue. The cell viability after KGC11o treatment was determined using BPH-1 cells, and, androgen receptor, Bax, Bcl-2, and TGF-β were confirmed by western blotting.

Results

In the in vivo study, administration of KGC11o reduced prostate weight by 18%, suppressed DHT (up to 22%) and 5AR2 (up to 12%) levels from administration of 100 mg/kg KGC11o (P < 0.05). PSA was significantly downregulated dose-dependently from at the concentration of 50 mg/kg KGC11o (P < 0.05). BPH-1 cell viability significantly reduced through the treatment with KGC11o. In vitro and vivo, AR, Bcl-2 TGF-β levels reduced significantly but Bax was increased (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

These results suggest that KGC11o may inhibit the development of BPH by significantly reducing the levels of BPH biomarkers via 5ARI, anti-androgenic effect, and anti-proliferation effect, serving as a potential functional food for treating BPH.

Efficacy and safety evaluation of black ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) extract (CJ EnerG): broad spectrum cytotoxic activity in human cancer cell lines and 28-day repeated oral toxicity study in Sprague-Dawley rats

BACKGROUND

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) has been used as a valuable ingredient in traditional medicine for thousands of years mostly in Asian countries due to its therapeutic effects in various diseases. Among the processed ginseng products, black ginseng is produced by a repeated steaming and drying process of ginseng roots and has been known for its superior efficacy based on high accumulation of minor ginsenosides as recently discovered. Despite its popularity and increasing use, the toxicity information on black ginseng still remained largely lacking, raising safety concerns. This study was therefore carried out to determine the repeated oral toxicity of black ginseng extract (BGE; CJ EnerG) with evaluation of cytotoxic activity as validation of its pharmacological activity for toxicity testing.

METHODS

Prior to the toxicity test, we examined the cytotoxicity of BGE in six cancer cell lines derived from distinct human tissues in comparison with red ginseng extract (RGE), ginsenosides Rg5 and 20(S)-Rg3, and then assessed 28-day repeated oral toxicity in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats using daily administration of up to 2000 mg/kg BGE.

RESULTS

BGE showed higher cytotoxicity than RGE in all the cell lines used in this study. Interestingly, the efficacy of BGE closely resembled the cytotoxic pattern of Rg5, suggesting Rg5 as the main effector in the cytotoxic activity of BGE. During the toxicity study, BGE-treated groups showed no noticeable abnormality in clinical signs, body weight gain, food and water consumption and urinalysis. Furthermore, hematological, serum biochemical and histopathological analyses did not find any BGE-related toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated that BGE has broad-spectrum in vitro cytotoxic activity, and that NOAEL of BGE in SD rats is > 2000 mg/kg, providing the essential safety information for human consumption.

Red ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) oil: A comprehensive review of extraction technologies, chemical composition, health benefits, molecular mechanisms, and safety

Red ginseng oil (RGO), rather than the conventional aqueous extract of red ginseng, has been receiving much attention due to accumulating evidence of its functional and pharmacological potential. In this review, we describe the key extraction technologies, chemical composition, potential health benefits, and safety of RGO. This review emphasizes the proposed molecular mechanisms by which RGO is involved in various bioactivities. RGO is mainly produced using organic solvents or supercritical fluid extraction, with the choice of method greatly affecting the yield and quality of the end products. RGO contains a high unsaturated fatty acid levels along with considerable amounts of lipophilic components such as phytosterols, tocopherols, and polyacetylenes. The beneficial health properties of RGO include cellular defense, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis, chemoprevention, hair growth promotion, and skin health improvement. We propose several molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways that underlie the bioactivity of RGO. In addition, RGO is regarded as safe and nontoxic. Further studies on RGO must focus on a deeper understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms, composition–functionality relationship, and verification of the bioactivities of RGO in clinical models. This review may provide useful information in the development of RGO-based products in nutraceuticals, functional foods, and functional cosmetics.

Red ginseng oil promotes hair growth and protects skin against UVC radiation

Background

A wide range of environmental factors, such as diseases, nutritional deficiencies, ageing, hormonal imbalances, stress, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation, may affect the structure and function of the skin that covers the entire surface of the human body. In this study, we investigated roles of red ginseng oil (RGO) in enhancing skin functions, including hair growth and skin protection, using mouse models.

Methods

For hair growth experiment, shaved dorsal skins of C57BL/6 mice were topically applied with vehicle, RGO, RGO's major compounds, or minoxidil for consecutive 21 days and skin tissues were examined the hair growth promoting capacity. For skin protection experiment, SKH-1 hairless mice were topically applied with vehicle or RGO twice a day for three days prior to exposure to UVC radiation at 20 kJ/cm². Skin tissues were collected to evaluate skin protective effects of RGO.

Results

Topical application of RGO to C57BL/6 mice effectively promoted hair regeneration by inducing early telogen-to-anagen transition and significantly increasing the density and bulb diameter of hair follicles. Major compounds, including linoleic acids and β-sitosterol, contributed to RGO-promoted hair growth. Treatment with RGO as well as its major components upregulated expression of hair growth–related proteins. Furthermore, in SKH-1 hairless mice, RGO had a protective effect against UVC-induced skin damage by inhibiting inflammation and apoptosis, as well as inducing cytoprotective systems.

Conclusion

These data suggest that RGO may be a potent agent for improving skin health and thereby preventing and/or treating hair loss and protecting skin against UV radiation.

Anti-Melanogenic Effects of Korean Red Ginseng Oil in an Ultraviolet B-Induced Hairless Mouse Model

A 'remedy for all' natural product widely known in the Korean Peninsula is called Panax Ginseng Meyer. Globalization represents a persistent risk to the ozone layer, leading to bountiful amounts of Ultra-Violet B beams (UVB). The variety in human skin hues is ascribed to the characteristic color called Melanin. However, Melanin overproduction due to UVB beams promotes skin staining and tumorigenesis, a process called photo aging, which damages skin quality. To assess the effects of Korean Red Ginseng Oil (KGO) on photo aging, the murine melanoma cell lines B16/F10 were used in vitro and HRM-2 hairless mice exposed to UVB were studied in vivo. Our results revealed that KGO reduced tyrosinase activity and melanin production in B16/F10 cells along with the suppression of upstream factors involved in the melanin production pathway, both transcriptionally and transitionally. In the in vivo studies, KGO suppressed the expression of Matrix Metalloproteinase (MMP) and Interleukins along with a reduction of depth in wrinkle formation and reduced collagen degradation. Moreover, the feed intake and feed efficiency ratio that decreased as a result of UVB exposure was also improved by KGO treatment. In light of our results, we conclude that KGO can have considerable benefits due to its various properties of natural skin enhancement.

13-Week repeated oral dose toxicity study on mixture of Korean red ginseng and deer antler extract in Sprague-Dawley rats

Owing to an increase in the consumption of herbal products as supplementary diets or functional foods, their safety has become an important issue. Repeated oral administration to rats for 13-week was performed to evaluate the potential toxicity of a mixture of Korean red ginseng and deer antler extract, the most popular traditional herbal ingredients. Three test groups for the mixture of Korean red ginseng and deer antler extract were administered at 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg/day in addition to a control group (water for injection). 10 male and 10 female rats were included in each group, and we evaluated the clinical, clinicopathological, and histopathological changes in the rats. One male rat in the test group at 1000 mg/kg/day died; however, it was considered a spontaneous death unrelated to the administration of the test substance. No test substance-related toxic effects were noted in rats in terms of body weight, food consumption, ophthalmological findings, urinalysis, hematological parameters, blood biochemical parameters, organ weights, gross postmortem findings, and histopathological findings. The present results suggest that the no observed adverse effect level of the mixture of Korean red ginseng and deer antler extract was greater than 2000 mg/kg/day in all rats after repeated oral administration for 13-week under the present study conditions.

Acute and genetic toxicity of GS-E3D, a new pectin lyase-modified red ginseng extract

Korean red ginseng and its extract have been used as traditional medicines and functional foods in countries worldwide. Pectin lyase-modified red ginseng extract (GS-E3D) was newly developed as a dietary supplement for obesity, diabetes-related renal dysfunction, etc. In this study, the safety of GS-E3D on acute toxicity and genotoxicity was evaluated. For acute study, Sprague-Dawley rats were administrated by oral gavage at a dose of 5000 mg/kg GS-E3D. To evaluate genotoxicity of GS-E3D, we conducted three-battery tests, which are Ames test using Escherichia coli (WP2uvrA pKM101) and Salmonella typhimurium strains (TA98, TA100, TA1535 and TA1537), chromosomal aberration test -using Chinese hamster lung cells, and micronucleus test using ICR mice. In acute toxicity studies, there were no dead animals or abnormal necropsy findings in the control group and GS-E3D (5000 mg/kg) treated group. GS-E3D did not induce mutagenicity in the bacterial test, chromosomal aberrations in Chinese hamster lung cells and micronuclei in bone marrow cells of mice. Conclusively, the approximate lethal dose of GS-E3D was greater than 5000 mg/kg bw and GS-E3D has no genotoxic potential in the three-battery tests on genotoxicity.

Chemopreventive Activity of Red Ginseng Oil in a Mouse Model of Azoxymethane/Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Inflammation-Associated Colon Carcinogenesis

Our previous studies have demonstrated antioxidant and cytoprotective properties of red ginseng oil (RGO). However, the role of RGO in models of intestinal inflammation has not been elucidated. In this study, we evaluated the chemopreventive effect of RGO in a mouse model of azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS)-induced colitis and explored its underlying mechanisms. Male C57BL/6 mice were intraperitoneally injected with a single dose of AOM (10 mg/kg), followed by 1.5% DSS in drinking water for 7 days to produce colon carcinogenesis. RGO at 10 or 100 mg/kg was orally given for 17 weeks. RGO supplementation reduced the plasma nitric oxide (NO) concentration as well as lipid peroxidation and inhibited the production of proinflammatory factors such as inducible NO synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, interleukin 1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α in the mouse colitis tissue. Increased phosphorylation levels of p65 and IκB by AOM/DSS exposure were attenuated by the presence of RGO. In addition, RGO supplementation induced the activity of primary antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase as well as the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2-mediated antioxidant enzyme hemeoxygenase-1 in the colons of AOM/DSS-treated mice. These findings indicate that RGO may be a potent natural chemopreventive agent for ameliorating inflammatory bowel diseases.

Protective Effects of Sesquiterpenoids from the Root of Panax ginseng on Fulminant Liver Injury Induced by Lipopolysaccharide/d-Galactosamine

It is reported that sesquiterpenoids from Panax ginseng (SPG) possess various pharmacological activities, for example, antidepressant, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory activities. The purpose of this study was to examine the hepatoprotective effects of SPG (2.5 and 10 mg/kg, i.g.) on fulminant liver injury induced by d-galactosamine (d-GalN) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and discuss its mechanisms of action. After 24 h of d-GalN (400 mg/kg, i.p.) and LPS (25 μg/kg, i.p.) exposure, the serum levels of alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) level, hepatic activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH), and hepatic tissue histology were measured. Expression levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and real-time polymerase chain reaction. Moreover, the nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell (NF-κB), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), sirtuin type 1 (Sirt 1), and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) were determined by western blotting. The results indicated that SPG evidently restrained the increase of serum ALT and AST levels induced by d-GalN/LPS. SPG obviously downregulated TNF-α and IL-1β levels and their mRNA expression in liver. In addition, d-GalN/LPS injection induced severe oxidative stress in liver by boosting the MDA level as well as decreasing CAT, GSH, and SOD capacities, and SPG reversed these changes. Meanwhile, SPG inhibited NF-κB activation induced by d-GalN/LPS and upregulated Sirt 1, Nrf2, and HO-1 expression levels. Therefore, SPG might protect against the fulminant liver injury induced by d-GalN/LPS via inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress. The protective effect of SPG on fulminant liver injury induced by d-GalN/LPS might be mediated by the Sirt 1/Nrf2/NF-κB signaling pathway. All of these results implied that SPG might be a promising food additive and therapeutic agent for fulminant liver injury.

Red Ginseng Oil Inhibits TPA-Induced Transformation of Skin Epidermal JB6 Cells

Red ginseng oil (RGO) has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective activity. In this study, we evaluated the inhibitory effect of RGO on 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-stimulated neoplastic transformation of JB6 P+ cells. RGO pretreatment abolished the transformation of JB6 P+ cells challenged by TPA. RGO suppressed the transactivation of activator protein-1 (AP-1) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) transcription factors as well as protein levels of cyclooxygenase-2, cyclin D1, cyclin E, and Bcl-2 in the TPA-treated cells. Additionally, TPA-induced phosphorylations of extracellular signal-regulated kinases, 90 kDa ribosomal S6 kinase 2, c-Jun N-terminal kinases, and glycogen synthase kinase 3β were downregulated in the presence of RGO. Furthermore, RGO induced the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated antioxidant enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression, and effectively blocked the overproduction of TPA-induced reactive oxygen species. These results suggest that RGO exerts a potent chemopreventive activity in skin cell model.

Protective Effects of Red Ginseng Oil against Aβ25-35-Induced Neuronal Apoptosis and Inflammation in PC12 Cells

One of pathological characteristics of Alzheimer's disease (AD), aggregation and deposition of β amyloid (Aβ), has been accepted as a potent activator of neuronal cell death. Red ginseng is well-known for various pharmacological activities, but most studies have been focused on red ginseng water extract (RGW), which has resulted in the conception of the present study of red ginseng oil (RGO) against Aβ_25-35-induced neurotoxicity. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction by Aβ were verified and the underlying mechanism by which RGO inhibited neuronal cell death, mitochondria dysfunction and NF-κB pathway related protein markers were evaluated. RGO attenuated Aβ_25-35-induced apoptosis, not only by inhibiting calcium influx, but also by reducing mitochondrial membrane potential loss. RGO significantly decreased Bax, whereas increased Bcl-2 and inactivated of caspase-3 and -9 and PARP-1 stimulated by Aβ_25-35. Anti-neuroinflammatory effect of RGO was demonstrated by downregulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38, resulting in inhibiting of the NF-κB pathway and thereby suppressing the expressions of pro-inflammatory mediators such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The present study revealed that RGO is a potential natural resource of the functional foods industry as well as a promising candidate of multi-target neuronal protective agent for the prevention of AD.

The host immune enhancing agent Korean red ginseng oil successfully attenuates Brucella abortus infection in a murine model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax ginseng Meyer (Araliaceae), is one of the most valuable traditional Chinese medicines and is used for the treatment of various human diseases. In this study, we elucidated the protective mechanism of the essential oil from Korean red ginseng (RGO) against Brucella infection.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of RGO on Brucella abortus viability, NO production, uptake and intracellular growth in macrophages were investigated. Mice were intraperitoneally infected with B. abortus and orally treated with RGO for 14 days. The weights and bacterial numbers from each spleen were monitored, and the sera were evaluated for cytokine production.

RESULTS

B. abortus viability was not affected, whereas NO production, internalization and intracellular replication were inhibited in RGO-treated macrophages. Bacterial adherence, F-actin polymerization and MAPK signaling protein phosphorylation (ERK1/2, JNK and p38α) were reduced and the co-localization of B. abortus-containing phagosomes with LAMP-1 was augmented in RGO-treated cells compared to untreated cells. RGO displayed protective effects against cell damage by inhibiting nitrite production during B. abortus infection in macrophages. Moreover, the spleen weight and bacterial burden were lower in the RGO-treated group than in the control group. The uninfected RGO-treated mice displayed increased TNF-α and IFN-γ production, whereas the B. abortus-infected RGO-treated mice showed reduced IL-10 production compared to the control.

CONCLUSION

RGO exhibits protective effects against B. abortus infection in vitro and in vivo, which emphasize the beneficial effects of RGO in the prevention and treatment of brucellosis.

Subacute oral toxicity and bacterial mutagenicity study of Korean Red Ginseng oil

Background

Red ginseng oil (RGO) is produced by supercritical CO₂ extraction of secondary products derived from Korean Red Ginseng extract. As the use of RGO has increased, product safety concerns have become more important.

Methods

In the present study, the subacute oral toxicity and bacterial reverse mutagenicity of RGO were evaluated. Sprague–Dawley rats were orally administered with RGO for 28 d by gavage. Daily RGO dose concentrations were 0 mg/kg body weight (bw), 500 mg/kg bw, 1,000 mg/kg bw, or 2,000 mg/kg bw per day. Bacterial reverse mutation tests included five bacterial strains (Escherichia coli WP2 and Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100, TA1535, and TA1537), which were used in the presence or absence of metabolic activation. The plated incorporation method for mutation test was used with RGO concentrations ranging from 312.5 μg to 5,000 μg per plate.

Results

The subacute oral toxicity test results did not reveal any marked changes in clinical characteristics. There were no toxicological changes related to RGO administration in hematological and serum biochemical characteristics in either control or treatment animals. Furthermore, no gross or histopathological changes related to RGO treatment were observed. The bacterial reverse mutation test results did not reveal, at any RGO concentration level and in all bacterial strains, any increase in the number of revertant colonies in the RGO treatment group compared to that in the negative control group.

Conclusion

The no-observed-adverse-effect level of RGO is greater than 2,000 mg/kg bw and RGO did not induce genotoxicity related to bacterial reverse mutations.

Induction of Nrf2/ARE-mediated cytoprotective genes by red ginseng oil through ASK1-MKK4/7-JNK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways in HepG2 cells

BACKGROUND

The induction of cellular defensive genes such as phase II detoxifying and antioxidant enzymes is a highly effective strategy for protection against carcinogenesis as well as slowing cancer development. Transcription factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor E2-related factor 2) is responsible for activation of phase II enzymes induced by natural chemopreventive compounds.

METHODS

Red ginseng oil (RGO) was extracted using a supercritical CO₂ extraction system and chemical profile of RGO was investigated by GC/MS. Effects of RGO on regulation of the Nrf2/antioxidant response element (ARE) pathway were determined by ARE-luciferase assay, western blotting, and confocal microscopy.

RESULTS

The predominant components of RGO were 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (31.48%), bicyclo[10.1.0]tridec-1-ene (22.54%), and 22,23-dihydrostigmasterol (16.90%). RGO treatment significantly increased nuclear translocation of Nrf2 as well as ARE reporter gene activity, leading to upregulation of heme oxygenase-1 and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1. Phosphorylation of the upstream kinases such as apoptosis signal-regulating kinase (ASK)1, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase (MKK)4/7, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 MAPK were enhanced by treatment with RGO. In addition, RGO-mediated Nrf2 expression and nuclear translocation was attenuated by JNK inhibitor SP600125 and p38 MAPK inhibitor SB202190.

CONCLUSION

RGO could be used as a potential chemopreventive agent, possibly by induction of Nrf2/ARE-mediated phase II enzymes via ASK1-MKK4/7-JNK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways.

Implications of red Panax ginseng in oxidative stress associated chronic diseases

The steaming process of Panax ginseng has been reported to increase its major known bioactive components, ginsenosides, and, therefore, its biological properties as compared to regular Panax ginseng. Biological functions of red Panax ginseng attenuating pro-oxidant environments associated with chronic diseases are of particular interest, since oxidative stress can be a key contributor to the pathogenesis of chronic diseases. Additionally, proper utilization of various biomarkers for evaluating antioxidant activities in natural products, such as ginseng, can also be important to providing validity to their activities. Thus, studies on the effects of red ginseng against various diseases as determined in cell lines, animal models, and humans were reviewed, along with applied biomarkers for verifying such effects. Limitations and future considerations of studying red ginseng were been discussed. Although further clinical studies are warranted, red ginseng appears to be beneficial for attenuating disease-associated symptoms via its antioxidant activities, as well as for preventing oxidative stress-associated chronic diseases.

Comparative effects of Orchis anatolica vs. the red Korean Panax ginseng treatments on testicular structure and function of adult male mice

BACKGROUND

The effects of Orchis anatolica plant roots on adult male mice testicular structure and function were explored and compared with those of the red Korean Panax ginseng.

METHODS

Both plants were administered orally to two separate mice groups at a dose of 800 mg/kg/day for 35 days and compared with control group. After treatment, 5 mice of each group were sacrificed and total mice weights, reproductive organs' weights, spermatogenesis, and androgenic serum markers were investigated. The remaining mice from all groups were allowed to mate with virgin female mice to explore male fertility potential.

RESULTS

RESULTS indicated that body and organs' weights were increased significantly in mice treated with Orchis anatolica where only slight changes were observed in red Korean Panax ginseng treated and control mice. Intestinal testicular Leydig cells and germinal cells counts were elevated significantly in mice treated with Orchis anatolica plant when compared with the other two groups. Testicular dynamics parameters recorded in both testes and caudae epididymides were found to be increased only in Orchis anatolica treated mice. Although testosterone serum titer was observed to be elevated in both treated mice groups a marked elevation was observed only in Orchis anatolica treated mice. Follicular stimulating hormone blood serum titer was also elevated obtained in Orchis anatolica treated mice when compared with the other two groups. The fertility index of male mice treated with Orchis anatolica plant was enhanced to a greater value when allowed mating with virgin female mice if compared with male mice fertility index recorded in the other two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

We can conclude that Orchis anatolica plant could be more useful to improve testicular functions and structural parameters in mice when compared with red Korean Panax ginseng.