The use of the internal transcribed spacer region for phylogenetic analysis of the microsporidian parasite Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei infecting whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) and for the development of a nested PCR as its diagnostic tool

The increasing economic losses associated with growth retardation caused by Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei (EHP), a microsporidian parasite infecting penaeid shrimp, require effective monitoring. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-1 region, the non-coding region of ribosomal clusters between 18S and 5.8S rRNA genes, is widely used in phylogenetic studies due to its high variability. In this study, the ITS-1 region sequence (~600-bp) of EHP was first identified, and primers for a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay targeting that sequence were designed. A newly developed nested-PCR method successfully detected the EHP in various shrimp (Penaeus vannamei and P. monodon) and related samples, including water and feces collected from Indonesia, Thailand, South Korea, India, and Malaysia. The primers did not cross-react with other hosts and pathogens, and this PCR assay is more sensitive than existing PCR detection methods targeting the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) and spore wall protein (SWP) genes. Phylogenetic analysis based on the ITS-1 sequences indicated that the Indonesian strain was distinct (86.2%) from other strains collected from Thailand and South Korea, and also showed the internal diversity among Thailand (N = 7, divided into four branches) and South Korean (N = 5, divided into two branches) samples. The results revealed the ability of the ITS-1 region to determine the genetic diversity of EHP from different geographical origins.

The use of the internal transcribed spacer region for phylogenetic analysis of the microsporidian parasite Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei infecting whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) and for the development of a nested PCR as its diagnostic tool

The increasing economic losses associated with growth retardation caused by Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei (EHP), a microsporidian parasite infecting penaeid shrimp, require effective monitoring. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-1 region, the non-coding region of ribosomal clusters between 18S and 5.8S rRNA genes, is widely used in phylogenetic studies due to its high variability. In this study, the ITS-1 region sequence (~600-bp) of EHP was first identified, and primers for a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay targeting that sequence were designed. A newly developed nested-PCR method successfully detected the EHP in various shrimp (Penaeus vannamei and P. monodon) and related samples, including water and feces collected from Indonesia, Thailand, South Korea, India, and Malaysia. The primers did not cross-react with other hosts and pathogens, and this PCR assay is more sensitive than existing PCR detection methods targeting the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) and spore wall protein (SWP) genes. Phylogenetic analysis based on the ITS-1 sequences indicated that the Indonesian strain was distinct (86.2%) from other strains collected from Thailand and South Korea, and also showed the internal diversity among Thailand (N = 7, divided into four branches) and South Korean (N = 5, divided into two branches) samples. The results revealed the ability of the ITS-1 region to determine the genetic diversity of EHP from different geographical origins.

Antiplatelet and Antithrombotic Activities of Lespedeza cuneata via Pharmacological Inhibition of Integrin αIIbβ3, MAPK, and PI3K/AKT Pathways and FeCl3-Induced Murine Thrombosis

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have been the major cause of mortality all around the globe. Lespedeza cuneata abbreviated as L. cuneata with the authority name of Dumont de Courset (G. Don) is a perennial flowering plant commonly grown in Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, China, and Taiwan. We aimed to investigate the L. cuneata extract's antiplatelet and antithrombotic properties as GC-MS analysis indicated that the extract contained short-chain fatty acids, which have been reported to possess beneficial cardiovascular effects. L. cuneata was extracted using water, 50% EtOH, 70% EtOH, and 100% EtOH. For in vitro antiplatelet analysis, washed platelets were prepared and incubated with L. cuneata with 200 μg/mL of 50% EtOH in the presence of 1 mM of CaCl2 for 1 minute followed by agonist (collagen 2.5 μg/mL or ADP 10 μM or thrombin 0.1 U/mL) stimulation for 5 minutes over light transmission aggregometer. Scanning electron microscopy was performed to assess platelet shape change. ATP release and intracellular calcium mobilization were quantified to assess the granular content. Fibrinogen-binding assay and clot retraction assay assessed integrin αIIbβ3-mediated inside-out and outside-in signaling. Protein phosphorylation expression was investigated by western blot analysis. Finally, the in vivo antithrombotic efficacy was investigated by oral dosage of L. cuneata 200 and 400 mg/kg and aspirin 100 mg/kg for 7 days, and tail bleeding and FeCl3-induced murine thrombus model were performed. In vitro platelet aggregation and platelet shape change were dose-dependently suppressed by L. cuneata. Calcium mobilization, dense granules secretion, integrin αIIbβ3-mediated inside-out and outside-in signaling, and protein phosphorylation of MAPK and PI3K/Akt pathways were significantly inhibited. In vivo assays revealed that L. cuneata prevents side effects of synthetic drugs via nonsignificantly increasing bleeding time and improving coronary artery blood flow and animal survival. Our results demonstrate that L. cuneata exhibited potent antiplatelet and antithrombotic effects and can be considered a potential herbal medicine with cardioprotective effects.

Molecular Detection and Genotyping of Theileria spp. in Deer (Cervidae) in Korea

Major clinical symptoms of Theileria infection include fever, anemia, anorexia, jaundice, and decreased milk production. Although several studies have been conducted on tick-borne pathogens, including Theileria in Korea, only a few have focused on Theileria infection in deer, including the Korean water deer. Blood samples from 160 deer were collected and subjected to DNA extraction and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Next, PCR-positive samples were sequenced and analyzed by constructing a phylogenetic tree. The results showed that the overall infection rate of Theileria was 8.1% (13/160). Infection rates of 100% were observed in the northern and southern regions. However, the study's limitation was its small sample size, wherein five and one samples were analyzed from the northern and southern regions, respectively. The central region exhibited the lowest infection rate of 2.9% (4/140). Infection rates also differed based on seasons, with the highest (18.4%, 9/49) being observed in spring, followed by that in summer (8.9%, 4/45). However, no infection was observed during autumn and winter. A phylogenetic analysis indicated that the PCR-positive samples contained Theileria luwenshuni, which usually infects small ruminants, such as goats and sheep.

Anti-thrombotic effects of ginsenoside Rk3 by regulating cAMP and PI3K/MAPK pathway on human platelets

Background and objective

The ability to inhibit aggregation has been demonstrated with synthetically derived ginsenoside compounds G-Rp (1, 3, and 4) and ginsenosides naturally found in Panax ginseng 20(S)-Rg3, Rg6, F4, and Ro. Among these compounds, Rk3 (G-Rk3) from Panax ginseng needs to be further explored in order to reveal the mechanisms of action during inhibition.

Methodology

Our study focused to investigate the action of G-Rk3 on agonist-stimulated human platelet aggregation, inhibition of platelet signaling molecules such as fibrinogen binding with integrin αIIbβ3 using flow cytometry, intracellular calcium mobilization, dense granule secretion, and thromboxane B2 secretion. In addition, we checked the regulation of phosphorylation on PI3K/MAPK pathway, and thrombin-induced clot retraction was also observed in platelets rich plasma.

Key Results

G-Rk3 significantly increased amounts of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and led to significant phosphorylation of cAMP-dependent kinase substrates vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R). In the presence of G-Rk3, dense tubular system Ca2+ was inhibited, and platelet activity was lowered by inactivating the integrin αIIb/β3 and reducing the binding of fibrinogen. Furthermore, the effect of G-Rk3 extended to the inhibition of MAPK and PI3K/Akt phosphorylation resulting in the reduced secretion of intracellular granules and reduced production of TXA2. Lastly, G-Rk3 inhibited platelet aggregation and thrombus formation via fibrin clot.

Conclusions and implications

These results suggest that when dealing with cardiovascular diseases brought upon by faulty aggregation among platelets or through the formation of a thrombus, the G-Rk3 compound can play a role as an effective prophylactic or therapeutic agent.

The Inhibitory Effects of Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis Larvae Extract on Human Platelet Aggregation and Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Expression

The white-spotted flower chafer, Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis, is used as a traditional remedy against liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, and hepatic cancer. In this study, we investigated if P. brevitarsis extract (PBE) inhibited platelet aggregation via integrin αIIb/β3 regulation. We observed that PBE inhibited αIIb/β3 activation by regulating the cyclic nucleotides, cyclic adenosine monophosphate and cyclic guanosine monophosphate. Additionally, PBE affected phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, Akt, SYK, glycogen synthase kinase-3α/β, cytosolic phospholipase A2, and p38 expression, which are signal transduction molecules expressed by platelets, and consequently suppressed αIIbβ3 activity and thromboxane A2 generation. Taken together, PBE showed strong antiplatelet effects and may be used to block thrombosis- and platelet-mediated cardiovascular diseases.

The anti-platelet activity of panaxadiol fraction and panaxatriol fraction of Korean Red Ginseng in vitro and ex vivo

Background

The anti-platelet activity of the saponin fraction of Korean Red Ginseng has been widely studied. The saponin fraction consists of the panaxadiol fraction (PDF) and panaxatriol fraction (PTF); however, their anti-platelet activity is yet to be compared. Our study aimed to investigate the potency of anti-platelet activity of PDF and PTF and to elucidate how well they retain their anti-platelet activity via different administration routes.

Methods

For ex vivo studies, Sprague-Dawley rats were orally administered 250 mg/kg PDF and PTF for 7 consecutive days before blood collection via cardiac puncture. Platelet aggregation was conducted after isolation of the washed platelets. For in vitro studies, washed platelets were obtained from Sprague-Dawley rats. Collagen and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) were used to induce platelet aggregation. Collagen was used as an agonist for assaying adenosine triphosphate release, thromboxane B2, serotonin, cyclic adenosine monophosphate, and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) release.

Results

When treated ex vivo, PDF not only inhibited ADP and collagen-induced platelet aggregation, but also upregulated cGMP levels and reduced platelet adhesion to fibronectin. Furthermore, it also inhibited Akt phosphorylation induced by collagen treatment. Panaxadiol fraction did not exert any anti-platelet activity in vitro, whereas PTF exhibited potent anti-platelet activity, inhibiting ADP, collagen, and thrombin-induced platelet aggregation, but significantly elevated levels of cGMP.

Conclusion

Our study showed that in vitro and ex vivo PDF and PTF treatments exhibited different potency levels, indicating possible metabolic conversions of ginsenosides, which altered the content of ginsenosides capable of preventing platelet aggregation.

Autologous Platelet Lysate Is an Alternative to Fetal Bovine Serum for Canine Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell Culture and Differentiation

The use of fetal bovine serum (FBS) in regenerative medicine raises serious ethical and scientific concerns. We have cultured and differentiated the canine mesenchymal stem cells (cMSCs) in five different media combinations of autologous platelet lysate (A-PL) and FBS; consisting of 0% A-PL and 10% FBS (M-1), 2.5% A-PL and 7.5% FBS (M-2), 5% A-PL and 5% FBS (M-3), 7.5% A-PL and 2.5% FBS (M-4), and 10% A-PL and 0% FBS (M-5). The cMSCs were evaluated for their doubling time, differentiation efficiency, and expression of CD73, CD90, CD105, and PDGFRα. The mRNA expression of NT5E, THY1, ENG, PPARγ, FABP4, FAS, SP7, BGLAP, and SPP1 was also assessed. The results indicated non-significant differences in cellular proliferation/viability; positive expression of surface markers, and PDGFRα with substantial adipo/osteogenic differentiation. The expression of adipogenic (PPARγ, FABP4, FAS), and osteogenic (SP7, BGLAP, SPP1) genes were higher (p < 0.05) in the M5 group. In conclusion, A-PL in cMSCs culture did not negatively affect cellular proliferation and viability but also enhanced their genetic potential for multilineage differentiation. Our results indicate that A-PL can be used as an alternative for FBS to develop potent cMSCs under good manufacturing practice protocol for regenerative medicine.

In silico investigation of Panax ginseng lead compounds against COVID-19 associated platelet activation and thromboembolism

Hypercoagulability is frequently observed in patients with severe coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Platelets are a favorable target for effectively treating hypercoagulability in COVID-19 patients as platelet hyperactivity has also been observed. It is difficult to develop a treatment for COVID-19 that will be effective against all variants and the use of antivirals may not be fully effective against COVID-19 as activated platelets have been detected in patients with COVID-19. Therefore, patients with less severe side effects often turn toward natural remedies. Numerous phytochemicals are being investigated for their potential to treat a variety of illnesses, including cancer and bacterial and viral infections. Natural products have been used to alleviate COVID-19 symptoms. Panax ginseng has potential for managing cardiovascular diseases and could be a treatment for COVID-19 by targeting the coagulation cascade and platelet activation. Using molecular docking, we analyzed the interactions of bioactive chemicals in P. ginseng with important proteins and receptors involved in platelet activation. Furthermore, the SwissADME online tool was used to calculate the pharmacokinetics and drug-likeness properties of the lead compounds of P. ginseng. Dianthramine, deoxyharrtingtonine, and suchilactone were determined to have favorable pharmacokinetic profiles.

Pharmacological Actions of 5-Hydroxyindolin-2 on Modulation of Platelet Functions and Thrombus Formation via Thromboxane A2 Inhibition and cAMP Production

Platelets play a very significant role in hemostasis while simultaneously posing a risk for the development of various cardiovascular diseases. Platelet-mediated issues can occur in blood vessels and trigger various medical problems. Therefore, controlling platelet function is important in the prevention of thrombosis. In this regard, we need to find compounds that provide potent antiplatelet activity with minimum side effects. Therefore, we examined the effect of 5-hydroxyindolin-2-one isolated from Protaetia brevitarsis larvae having antiplatelet properties and investigated different pathways that mediate the antiplatelet activity. We examined the effect of 5-hydroxyindolin-2-one (5-HI) on the regulation of phosphoproteins, thromboxane A₂ generation, and integrin αIIbβ3 action. Our data showed that human platelet aggregation was inhibited by 5-HI (75, 100, 150, 200 μM) without cytotoxicity, and it suppressed intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration through the regulation of inositol 1, 4, 5-triphosphate receptor I (Ser¹⁷⁵⁶) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Moreover, collagen-elevated thromboxane A₂ production and αIIbβ3 action were inhibited by 5-HI through the regulation of cytosolic phospholipase A₂ (cPLA₂), mitogen-activated protein kinase p38 (p38^MAPK), vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), and Akt (protein kinase B). Therefore, we suggested that 5-HI could be a potential substance for the prevention of thrombosis-mediated thrombosis.

Involvement of the p38 MAPK-NLRC4-Caspase-1 Pathway in Ionizing Radiation-Enhanced Macrophage IL-1β Production

Macrophages are abundant immune cells in the tumor microenvironment and are crucial in regulating tumor malignancy. We previously reported that ionizing radiation (IR) increases the production of interleukin (IL)-1β in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophages, contributing to the malignancy of colorectal cancer cells; however, the mechanism remained unclear. Here, we show that IR increases the activity of cysteine-aspartate-specific protease 1 (caspase-1), which is regulated by the inflammasome, and cleaves premature IL-1β to mature IL-1β in RAW264.7 macrophages. Irradiated RAW264.7 cells showed increased expression of NLRC4 inflammasome, which controls the activity of caspase-1 and IL-1β production. Silencing of NLRC4 using RNA interference inhibited the IR-induced increase in IL-1β production. Activation of the inflammasome can be regulated by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)s in macrophages. In RAW264.7 cells, IR increased the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK but not extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase. Moreover, a selective inhibitor of p38 MAPK inhibited LPS-induced IL-1β production and NLRC4 inflammasome expression in irradiated RAW264.7 macrophages. Our results indicate that IR-induced activation of the p38 MAPK-NLRC4-caspase-1 activation pathway in macrophages increases IL-1β production in response to LPS.

Petasites japonicus extract exerts anti-malarial effects by inhibiting platelet activation

BACKGROUND

New antimalarial agents are needed to combat emerging resistance to the currently available drugs. In the pathology of cerebral malaria, platelets play a central role by binding infected and uninfected red cells and the endothelium. Since Petasites japonicus extract was reported as an effective inhibitor of platelet activation, we examined the antimalarial activities of the P. japonicus extract.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of P. japonicus extract prepared from whole plants on malarial infection.

METHODS

The P. japonicus extract were characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) profiling. Antimalarial activity of the P. japonicus ethanolic extract was evaluated in vitro using chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) and chloroquine-resistant (Dd2) P. berghei strains. Also, the in vivo activity of the extract was evaluated in P. berghei-infected mice via oral administration followed by a four-day suppressive test to measure the hematological parameters. In addition, platelet activation signaling induced by the P. japonicus extract in P. berghei infection was evaluated.

RESULTS

In HPLC study, catechin, rutin, liquiritin, 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, and 4,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid were identified in P. japonicus extract. Exposure to the P. japonicus extract significantly inhibited both CQ-sensitive (3D7) and resistant (Dd2) strains of P. falciparum with IC₅₀ values of 8.48 ± 1.70 and 7.83 ± 6.44 μg/ml, respectively. Administration of the P. japonicus extract also resulted in potent antimalarial activities in P. berghei-infected mice with no associated toxicity. The treatment also improved the hematologic parameters. In addition, the survived mice from P. berghei infection exhibited the inhibition of collagen-induced platelet aggregation by attenuated glycoprotein VI (GPVI) downstream signaling.

CONCLUSION

P. japonicus extracts promote antimalarial effects both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the effects appear to be induced by the inhibition of collagen-induced platelet activation related to attenuated GPVI downstream signaling. Further studies to identify and characterize the antimalarial compounds in P. japonicus will promote the development of new drugs.

Serum biomarker-based osteoporosis risk prediction and the systemic effects of Trifolium pratense ethanolic extract in a postmenopausal model

Background

Recent years, a soaring number of marketed Trifolium pratense (red clover) extract products have denoted that a rising number of consumers are turning to natural alternatives to manage postmenopausal symptoms. T. pratense ethanolic extract (TPEE) showed immense potential for their uses in the treatment of menopause complications including osteoporosis and hormone dependent diseases. Early diagnosis of osteoporosis can increase the chance of efficient treatment and reduce fracture risks. Currently, the most common diagnosis of osteoporosis is performed by using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). However, the major limitation of DXA is that it is inaccessible and expensive in rural areas to be used for primary care inspection. Hence, serum biomarkers can serve as a meaningful and accessible data for osteoporosis diagnosis.

Methods

The present study systematically elucidated the anti-osteoporosis and estrogenic activities of TPEE in ovariectomized (OVX) rats by evaluating the bone microstructure, uterus index, serum and bone biomarkers, and osteoblastic and osteoclastic gene expression. Leverage on a pool of serum biomarkers obtained from this study, recursive feature elimination with a cross-validation method (RFECV) was used to select useful biomarkers for osteoporosis prediction. Then, using the key features extracted, we employed five classification algorithms: extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), random forest, support vector machine, artificial neural network, and decision tree to predict the bone quality in terms of T-score.

Results

TPEE treatments down-regulated nuclear factor kappa-B ligand, alkaline phosphatase, and up-regulated estrogen receptor β gene expression. Additionally, reduced serum C-terminal telopeptides of type 1 collagen level and improvement in the estrogen dependent characteristics of the uterus on the lining of the lumen were observed in the TPEE intervention group. Among the tested classifiers, XGBoost stood out as the best performing classification model with the highest F1-score and lowest standard deviation.

Conclusions

The present study demonstrates that TPEE treatment showed therapeutic benefits in the prevention of osteoporosis at the transcriptional level and maintained the estrogen dependent characteristics of the uterus. Our study revealed that, in the case of limited number of features, RFECV paired with XGBoost model could serve as a powerful tool to readily evaluate and diagnose postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13020-022-00622-7.

Isopanepoxydone inhibits oxidative damage in murine alveolar macrophages via NRF2 and NLRP3 inflammasome

BACKGROUND

Respiratory diseases due to particulate matter are a serious health issue. We sought to investigate the efficacy of isopanepoxydone (ISO) isolated from the Panus rudis as a therapeutic against particulate matter-induced respiratory complications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ISO was isolated from a culture broth of Panus rudis using solvent partition, silica gel, and column chromatography, and high-performance liquid chromatography. Its chemical structure was determined spectroscopically. Murine alveolar macrophages (MH-S) were treated with ISO to investigate the inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) while cytotoxicity was investigated via a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay. The expression of pro-inflammatory mediators, cytokines, and protein expression levels in the oxidative protective and inflammasome pathway were also investigated. Reactive oxygen species in MH-S cells were investigated using 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate while immunofluorescence was performed to investigate the expression of activated apoptosis-associated speck-like proteins (ASC) containing a caspase recruitment domain in MH-S cells.

RESULTS

ISO effectively inhibited CFA-induced NO production with no cytotoxicity on MH-S cells and pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines were also inhibited (except tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6). ISO enhanced the protein expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, while suppressing proteins in the inflammasome pathway, but did not suppress the expression of nuclear factor-kappa B. ISO also reduced detectable ROS other than preventing the activation of ASC.

CONCLUSION

Pathways of action of ISO in MH-S cells that prevent oxidative damage and suppress the expression of proteins in the inflammasome pathway were investigated. ISO may be developed as a treatment for respiratory inflammation.

Anti-Thrombotic Effects of Artesunate through Regulation of cAMP and PI3K/MAPK Pathway on Human Platelets

Normal activation of platelets and their aggregation are crucial for proper hemostasis. It appears that excessive or abnormal aggregation of platelets may bring about cardiovascular diseases such as stroke, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis. For this reason, finding a substance that can regulate platelet aggregation or suppress aggregation will aid in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Artesunate is a compound extracted from the plant roots of Artemisia or Scopolia, and its effects have shown to be promising in areas of anticancer and Alzheimer’s disease. However, the role and mechanisms by which artesunate affects the aggregation of platelets and the formation of a thrombus are currently not understood. This study examines the ways artesunate affects the aggregation of platelets and the formation of a thrombus on platelets induced by U46619. As a result, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) production were increased significantly by artesunate relative to the doses, as well as phosphorylated vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP₃R), substrates to cAMP-dependent kinase and cGMP-dependent kinase, in a significant manner. The Ca²⁺, normally mobilized from the dense tubular system, was inhibited due to IP₃R phosphorylation from artesunate, and phosphorylated VASP aided in inhibiting platelet activity via αIIb/β₃ platelet membrane inactivation and inhibiting fibrinogen binding. In addition, MAPK and PI3K/Akt phosphorylation was inhibited via artesunate in a significant manner, causing the production of TXA₂ and intracellular granular secretion (serotonin and ATP release) to be reduced. Therefore, we suggest that artesunate has value as a substance that inhibits platelet aggregation and thrombus formation through an antiplatelet mechanism.

Pharmacological actions of Dieckol on modulation of platelet functions and thrombus formation via integrin αIIbβ3 and cAMP signaling

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Dieckol is a phlorotannin that can be found in seaweeds, particularly in Eisenia bicyclis (brown algae) and is known to have anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial properties. It also possesses anti-thrombotic and pro-fibrinolytic activities; however, the mechanistic aspects of anti-platelet and anti-thrombotic activity are yet to be explored.

STUDY DESIGN

and Methodology: We investigated the pharmacological effects of dieckol on the modulation of platelet functions using human, rat, and mice models. Inhibitory effects of dieckol on platelet aggregation were assessed using platelet-rich plasma and washed platelets, followed by measurement of dense granule secretions, fibrinogen binding to integrin α_IIbβ₃, fibronectin adhesion assay, platelet spreading on immobilized fibrinogen, and clot retraction. Cyclic nucleotide signaling events were evaluated, such as cyclic-AMP production followed by vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) stimulation. The in vivo anti-thrombotic potential was evaluated in mice using an acute pulmonary thromboembolism model and tail bleeding assay.

RESULTS

Dieckol markedly inhibited platelet aggregation and granule secretion; furthermore, it down-regulated integrin α_IIbβ₃-mediated inside-out and outside-in signaling events, including platelet adhesion, spreading, and clot retraction, whereas it upregulated the cAMP-PKA-VASP pathway. Dieckol-treated mice significantly survived the thrombosis than vehicle treated mice, without affecting hemostasis. Histological examinations of lungs revealed minimum occluded vasculature in dieckol-treated mice.

CONCLUSION

Dieckol possesses strong anti-platelet and anti-thrombotic properties and is a potential therapeutic drug candidate to treat and prevent platelet-related cardiovascular disorders.

Panax ginseng: Inflammation, platelet aggregation, thrombus formation, and atherosclerosis crosstalk

Ginseng has been widely studied due to its various therapeutic properties on various diseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD). Cardiovascular disease has been canonically known to be caused by high levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) in the bloodstream, in addition to the impaired vasodilatory effects of cholesterol. However, current research on CVD has revealed a cascade of mechanisms involving a series of events that contribute to the progression of CVD. Although this has been elucidated and summarized in previous studies the detailed correlation between platelet aggregation and innate immunity that plays an important role in CVD progression has not been thoroughly summarized. Furthermore, immune cell subtypes also contribute to the progression of plaque formation in the subendothelial layer. Thrombus formation and the coagulation cascade also have a vital role in the progression of atherosclerosis. Hence, in this mini review we aim to elucidate, summarize, and propose the potent therapeutic effect of ginseng on CVD, mainly on platelet aggregation, plaque formation, and thrombus formation.

DK-MGAR101, an extract of adventitious roots of mountain ginseng, improves blood circulation by inhibiting endothelial cell injury, platelet aggregation, and thrombus formation

Background

Since ginsenosides exert an anti-thrombotic activity, blood flow-improving effects of DK-MGAR101, an extract of mountain ginseng adventitious roots (MGAR) containing various ginsenosides, were investigated in comparison with an extract of Korean Red Ginseng (ERG).

Methods

In Sprague-Dawley rats orally administered with DK-MGAR101 or ERG, oxidative carotid arterial thrombosis was induced with FeCl₃ (35%), and their blood flow and occlusion time were measured. To elucidate underlying mechanisms, the cytoprotective activities on rat aortic endothelial cells (RAOECs) exposed to hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) were confirmed. In addition, the inhibitory activities of DK-MGAR101 and ERG on agonist-induced platelet aggregation, thromboxane B₂ production, and ATP granule release from stimulated platelets as well as blood coagulation were analyzed.

Results

DK-MGAR101 containing high concentrations of Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 ginsenosides (55.07 mg/g) was more effective than ERG (ginsenosides 8.45 mg/g) in protecting RAOECs against H₂O₂ cytotoxicity. DK-MGAR101 was superior to ERG not only in suppressing platelet aggregation, thromboxane B₂ production, and granule release, but also in delaying blood coagulation, FeCl₃-induced arterial occlusion, and thrombus formation.

Conclusions

The results indicate that DK-MGAR101 prevents blood vessel occlusion by suppressing platelet aggregation, thrombosis, and blood coagulation, in addition to endothelial cell injury.

Enterocytozoon bieneusi Genotypes and Infections in the Horses in Korea

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a microsporidian pathogen. Recently, the equestrian population is increasing in Korea. The horse-related zoonotic pathogens, including E. bieneusi, are concerns of public health. A total of 1,200 horse fecal samples were collected from riding centers and breeding farms in Jeju Island and inland areas. Of the fecal samples 15 (1.3%) were PCR positive for E. bieneusi. Interestingly, all positive samples came from Jeju Island. Diarrhea and infection in foals were related. Two genotypes (horse1, horse2) were identified as possible zoonotic groups requiring continuous monitoring.

The increasing hematopoietic effect of the combined treatment of Korean Red Ginseng and Colla corii asini on cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in mice

Background

Hematopoiesis is the production of blood cells from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) that reside in the bone marrow. Cyclophosphamide (CTX) is a chemotherapy drug that suppresses the immune system. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) and Colla corii asini (CCA) have been traditionally used for boosting the immune system.

Methods

HSCs in the bone marrow, and immune cell subtype in splenocytes, PBMCs, and thymocytes were investigated. Serum levels of hematopoietic-related markers were analyzed using ELISA. Protein expression in spleen tissue was analyzed using western blot analysis. Hematoxylin & eosin staining in the femurs of mice were also conducted.

Results

The combination of KRG and CCA with a ratio of 3:2 increased HSCs, CD3 and CD8⁺ T cells in the circulation, and CD3 T cells in the spleen. A ratio of 2:3 (KRG:CCA) increased the thymic regulatory T cells and recovered the CD3 T cells in the spleen and circulation while recovering proteins in the JAK-STAT pathway in the spleen. Overall, blood cell population and differentiating factors vital for cell differentiation were also significantly recovered by all combinations especially in ratios of 3:2 and 2:3.

Conclusion

A ratio of 3:2 (KRG:CCA) is the most ideal combination as it recovered the HSC population in the bone marrow of mice.

Effects of Gintonin-enriched fraction on the gene expression of six lysophosphatidic receptor subtypes

Background

Gintonin, isolated from ginseng, acts as a ginseng-derived lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor ligand and elicits the [Ca²⁺]_i transient through six LPA receptor subtypes (LPARSs). However, the long-term effects of gintonin-enriched fraction (GEF) on the gene expression of six LPARSs remain unknown. We examined changes in the gene expression of six LPA receptors in the mouse whole brain, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, spleen, small intestine, colon, and testis after long-term oral GEF administration.

Methods

C57BL/6 mice were divided into two groups: control vehicle and GEF (100 mg/kg, p.o.). After 21-day saline or GEF treatment, total RNA was extracted from nine mouse organs. Quantitative-real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blot were performed to quantify changes in the gene and protein expression of the six LPARSs, respectively.

Results

qRT-PCR analysis before GEF treatment revealed that the LPA6 RS was predominant in all organs except the small intestine. The LPA2 RS was most abundant in the small intestine. Long-term GEF administration differentially regulated the six LPARSs. Upon GEF treatment, the LPA6 RS significantly increased in the liver, small intestine, colon, and testis but decreased in the whole brain, heart, lungs, and kidneys. Western blot analysis of the LPA6 RS confirmed the differential effects of GEF on LPA6 receptor protein levels in the whole brain, liver, small intestine, and testis.

Conclusion

The LPA6 receptor was predominantly expressed in all nine organs examined; long-term oral GEF administration differentially regulated LPA3, LPA4, and LPA6 receptors in the whole brain, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, small intestine, and testis.

Rumex acetosella Inhibits Platelet Function via Impaired MAPK and Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase Signaling

OBJECTIVE

To examine the antiplatelet and antithrombotic activity of Rumex acetosella extract.

METHODS

Standard light aggregometry was used for platelet aggregation, intracellular calcium mobilization assessed using Fura-2/AM, granule secretion (ATP release) by luminometer, and fibrinogen binding to integrin α_IIbβ₃ detected using flow cytometry. Western blotting is carried out to determine the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling.

RESULTS

Rumex acetosella displayed the ability to inhibit platelet aggregation, calcium mobilization, granule secretion, and fibrinogen binding to integrin α_IIbβ₃. Rumex acetosella has also down-regulated MAPK and PI3K/Akt phosphorylation (all P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

Rumex acetosella extract exhibits antiplatelet activity via modulating GPVI signaling, and it may protect against the development of platelet-related cardiovascular diseases.

Isoleucilactucin Ameliorates Coal Fly Ash-Induced Inflammation through the NF-κB and MAPK Pathways in MH-S Cells

We investigated whether isoleucilactucin, an active constituent of Ixeridium dentatum, reduces inflammation caused by coal fly ash (CFA) in alveolar macrophages (MH-S). The anti-inflammatory effects of isoleucilactucin were assessed by measuring the concentration of nitric oxide (NO) and the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators in MH-S cells exposed to CFA-induced inflammation. We found that isoleucilactucin reduced CFA-induced NO generation dose-dependently in MH-S cells. Moreover, isoleucilactucin suppressed CFA-activated proinflammatory mediators, including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) and inducible NO synthase (iNOS), and the proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-(IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α). The inhibiting properties of isoleucilactucin on the nuclear translocation of phosphorylated nuclear factor-kappa B (p-NF-κB) were observed. The effects of isoleucilactucin on the NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways were also measured in CFA-stimulated MH-S cells. These results indicate that isoleucilactucin suppressed CFA-stimulated inflammation in MH-S cells by inhibiting the NF-κB and MAPK pathways, which suggest it might exert anti-inflammatory properties in the lung.

Red Ginseng Oil Attenuates Oxidative Stress and Offers Protection against Ultraviolet-Induced Photo Toxicity

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a well-known herbal medicine that has been used for a long time in Korea to treat various diseases. This study investigated the in vitro and in vivo protective effects of red ginseng extract (RGE) and red ginseng oil (RGO). Liver injury was produced in BALB/c mice by 400 mg/kg of acetaminophen intraperitoneal injection. The antioxidant effects of RGE and RGO on the free radicals 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) were measured. In addition, the hepatoprotective activities of RGE and RGO on liver markers, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and oxidative stress markers, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) enzyme activity, and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in serum and histopathological analysis, were evaluated. The protective effect of RGO on UV-induced phototoxicity was also evaluated in Balb/c 3T3 mouse fibroblast cell line. RGE and RGO effectively inhibited the radicals DPPH and ABTS compared with ascorbic acid and trolox, respectively. Moreover, RGE and RGO significantly decreased the liver enzyme (ALT and AST) levels, increased the antioxidant enzyme (SOD and CAT) levels, and decreased the DNA oxidation product (8-OHdG) content in mice serum. RGO also exhibited protective effect against UV irradiation compared with chlorpromazine hydrochloride, a known phototoxic drug, in Balb/c 3T3 cell line. RGE and RGO possess antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties in mice, and RGO exerts nonphototoxic activity in Balb/c 3T3 cells.

Alleviation of Ulcerative Colitis Potentially through th1/th2 Cytokine Balance by a Mixture of Rg3-enriched Korean Red Ginseng Extract and Persicaria tinctoria

Ginseng is a vastly used herbal supplement in Southeast Asian countries. Red ginseng extract enriched with Rg3 (Rg3-RGE) is a formula that has been extensively studied owing to its various biological properties. Persicaria tinctoria (PT), belonging to the Polygonaceae family, has also been reported for its anti-inflammatory properties. Ulcerative colitis (UC) is inflammation of the large intestine, particularly in the colon. This disease is increasingly common and has high probability of relapse. We investigated, separately and in combination, the effects of Rg3-RGE and PT using murine exemplary of UC induced by DSS (Dextran Sulfate Sodium). For in vitro and in vivo experiments, nitric oxide assay, qRT-Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Western blot, ulcerative colitis introduced by DSS, Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), and flow cytometry analysis were performed. The results obtained demonstrate that treatment with Rg3-RGE + PT showed synergism to suppress inflammation (in vitro) in RAW 264.7 cells via mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor κB pathways. Moreover, in C57BL/6 mice, this mixture exhibits strong anti-inflammatory effects in restoring colon length, histopathological damage, pro-inflammatory mediators, and cytokines amount, and decreasing levels of NLRP3 inflammasome (in vivo). Our results recommend that this mixture can be used for the prevention of UC as a prophylactic/therapeutic supplement.

Hypericum ascyron L. extract reduces particulate matter-induced airway inflammation in mice

The consequences of increased industrialization increased the risk of asthma and breathing difficulties due to increased particulate matter in the air. We aim to investigate the therapeutic properties of Hypericum ascyron L. extract (HAE) in airway inflammation and unravel its mechanism of action. We conducted nitric oxide and cell viability assay, real-time PCR and western blot analyses along with in vitro studies. in vivo studies include a model of coal fly ash and diesel exhaust particle (CFD)-induced airway inflammation in mice. HAE reduced coal fly ash (CFA)-induced nitric oxide secretion without exhibiting cytotoxicity in MH-S cells. HAE also reduced the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reduced the expression of proteins in the NFκB and MAPK pathways. In a mice model of CFD-induced airway inflammation, HAE effectively reduced neutrophil infiltration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and increased the amount of T cells in the BALF, lungs, and blood while reducing all other immune cell subtypes to reduce airway inflammatory response. CXCL-1, IL-17, MIP-2, and TNF-α expression in the BALF were also reduced. HAE effectively reduced MIP-2 and TNF-α mRNA expression in the lung tissue of mice. In a nutshell, HAE is effective in preventing airway inflammation induced by CFA in MH-S cells, as well as inflammation induced by CFD in mice.

Physalis alkekengi Exhibits Antiobesity Effects in Mice with Potential of Inducing White Adipose Tissue Browning

The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of an ethanol extract of Physalis alkekengi (PA) and its mechanistic pathway of action at the molecular level for its antiobesity properties. Four-week old male Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice were acclimatized for a week before starting the high-fat diet (HFD) for 2 weeks to induce obesity, followed by 8 more weeks of oral administration of 10 mg/kg orlistat and 300 mg/kg of PA extract, along with HFD. Body weights of the mice and feed and water intake were recorded weekly. After a total of 12 weeks, mice were euthanized, and blood, liver, and adipose tissues were harvested for further analysis. Administration of PA extract inhibited the progression of obesity by reducing weight gain, weight of adipose tissue, and normalizing serum triglyceride, glucose, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase. PA extract prevented the progression of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis induced by HFD and prevented the enlargement of liver. Phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase α increased while phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase was reduced. The browning gene uncoupling protein 1 expression was also increased by PA extract treatment. Our findings revealed that the antiobesity properties of PA extract may be mediated by browning of white adipose tissue.

Effects of a herbal formulation, KGC3P, and its individual component, nepetin, on coal fly dust-induced airway inflammation

Coal fly dust (CFD)-induced asthma model is used as an ambient particulate matter model of serious pulmonary damage. We aimed to evaluate the effects of a combination of ginseng and Salvia plebeia R. Br extract (KGC-03-PS; KG3P) and its individual components (hispidulin, nepetin and rosmarinic acid) in a CFD-induced mouse model of airway inflammation (asthma). We also evaluated signal transduction by KG3P and its individual components in the alveolar macrophage cell line, MH-S cells. In vitro, KG3P and its individual components inhibited nitric oxide production and expression of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines (iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α) through the NF-κB and MAPK pathways in coal fly ash (CFA)-induced inflammation in MH-S cells. Moreover, in the CFD-induced asthma model in mice, KG3P and its predominant individual component, nepetin, inhibited Asymmetric Dimethyl arginine (ADMA) and Symmetric Dimethyl arginine (SDMA) in serum, and decreased the histopathologic score in the lungs. A significant reduction in the neutrophils and immune cells in BALF and lung tissue was demonstrated, with significant reduction in the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines. Finally, IRAK-1 localization was also potently inhibited by KG3P and nepetin. Thus, KG3P extract can be considered as a potent candidate for amelioration of airway inflammation.

Gintonin influences the morphology and motility of adult brain neurons via LPA receptors

Background

Gintonin is an exogenous ginseng-derived G-protein-coupled lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor ligand. LPA induces in vitro morphological changes and migration through neuronal LPA1 receptor. Recently, we reported that systemic administration of gintonin increases blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability via the paracellular pathway and its binding to brain neurons. However, little is known about the influences of gintonin on in vivo neuron morphology and migration in the brain.

Materials and methods

We examined the effects of gintonin on in vitro migration and morphology using primary hippocampal neural precursor cells (hNPC) and in vivo effects of gintonin on adult brain neurons using real time microscopic analysis and immunohistochemical analysis to observe the morphological and locational changes induced by gintonin treatment.

Results

We found that treating hNPCs with gintonin induced morphological changes with a cell rounding following cell aggregation and return to individual neurons with time relapses. However, the in vitro effects of gintonin on hNPCs were blocked by the LPA1/3 receptor antagonist, Ki16425, and Rho kinase inhibitor, Y27632. We also examined the in vivo effects of gintonin on the morphological changes and migration of neurons in adult mouse brains using anti-NeuN and -neurofilament H antibodies. We found that acute intravenous administration of gintonin induced morphological and migrational changes in brain neurons. Gintonin induced some migrations of neurons with shortened neurofilament H in the cortex. The in vivo effects of gintonin were also blocked by Ki16425.

Conclusion

The present report raises the possibility that gintonin could enter the brain and exert its influences on the migration and morphology of adult mouse brain neurons and possibly explains the therapeutic effects of neurological diseases behind the gintonin administration.

Adaptogenic effects of Panax ginseng on modulation of cardiovascular functions

Cardiovascular diseases are a rapidly growing epidemic with high morbidity and mortality. There is an urgent need to develop nutraceutical-based therapy with minimum side effects to reduce cardiovascular risk. Panax ginseng occupies a prominent status in herbal medicine for its various therapeutic effects against inflammation, allergy, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and even cancer, with positive, beneficial, and restorative effects. The active components found in most P. ginseng varieties are known to include ginsenosides, polysaccharides, peptides, alkaloids, polyacetylene, and phenolic compounds, which are considered to be the main pharmacologically active constituents in ginseng. P. ginseng is an adaptogen. That is, it supports living organisms to maintain optimal homeostasis by exerting effects that counteract physiological changes caused by physical, chemical, or biological stressors. P. ginseng possesses immunomodulatory (including both immunostimulatory and immunosuppressive), neuromodulatory, and cardioprotective effects; suppresses anxiety; and balances vascular tone. P. ginseng has an antihypertensive effect that has been explained by its vasorelaxant action, and paradoxically, it is also known to increase blood pressure by vasoconstriction and help maintain cardiovascular health. Here, we discuss the potential adaptogenic effects of P. ginseng on the cardiovascular system and outline a future research perspective in this area.

Ulmus parvifolia Modulates Platelet Functions and Inhibits Thrombus Formation by Regulating Integrin αIIbβ3 and cAMP Signaling

Background

The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is increasing at a high rate, and the available treatment options, sometimes, have complications which necessitates the need to develop safer and efficacious approaches. Ethnomedicinal applications reportedly reduce CVD risk. Ulmus parvifolia Jacq. (Ulmaceae) commonly known as Chinese Elm or Lacebark Elm, is native to China, Japan, and Korea. It exhibits anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anticancer properties, but its anti-platelet properties have not yet been elucidated.

Purpose

To investigate the pharmacological anti-platelet and anti-thrombotic effects of U. parvifolia bark extract.

Study Design and Methods

Human and rat washed platelets were prepared; light transmission aggregometry and scanning electron microscopy was performed to assess platelet aggregation and the change in platelet shape, respectively. Intracellular calcium mobilization, ATP release, and thromboxane-B2 production were also measured. Integrin α_IIbβ₃ activation was analyzed in terms of fibrinogen binding, fibronectin adhesion, and clot retraction. The expression of MAPK, Src, and PI3K/Akt pathway proteins was examined. Cyclic nucleotide signaling pathway was evaluated via cAMP elevation and VASP phosphorylation. Anti-thrombotic activity of the extract was evaluated in vivo using an arteriovenous shunt rat model, whereas its effect on hemostasis in mice was assessed via bleeding time assay.

Results

U. parvifolia extract significantly inhibited human and rat platelet aggregation in a dose-dependent manner along with inhibition of calcium mobilization, dense granule secretion, and TxB2 production. Integrin α_IIbβ₃ mediated inside-out and outside-in signaling events, as evidenced by the inhibition of fibrinogen binding, fibronectin adhesion, and clot retraction. The extract significantly reduced phosphorylation of Src, MAPK (ERK, JNK, and p38^MAPK), and PI3K/Akt pathway proteins. Cyclic-AMP levels were elevated in U. parvifolia-treated platelets, while PKAαβγ and VASP^ser157 phosphorylation was enhanced. U. parvifolia reduced thrombus weight in rats and moderately increased bleeding time in mice.

Conclusion

U. parvifolia modulates platelet responses and inhibit thrombus formation by regulating integrin α_IIbβ₃ mediated inside-out and outside-in signaling events and cAMP signaling pathway.

Rumex acetosa modulates platelet function and inhibits thrombus formation in rats

Background

The Rumex acetosa has been used in medicinal treatment, food technology and phytotherapeutics in Eastern Asia and many other countries. However, its effect on cardiovascular system and antiplatelet activity remained to be known. In this study, we examined the antiplatelet activity of R. acetosa in detailed manner to understand underlying mechanism.

Methods

To study this, whole blood was obtained from male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats and aggregation of washed platelets measured using light transmission aggregometry. Intracellular calcium ion concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) was measured using Fura-2/AM while ATP release evaluated by luminometer. Activation of integrin α_IIbβ₃ analyzed by flow cytometry and clot retraction. Furthermore, we studied the signaling pathways mediated by R. acetosa extract by western blot analysis.

Results

R. acetosa extract markedly inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation and ATP release in a dose-dependent manner. It also suppressed [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization, integrin α_IIbβ₃ activation and clot retraction. The extract significantly attenuated phosphorylation of the MAPK pathway (i.e., ERK1/2, JNK), MKK4, PI3K/Akt, and Src family kinase.

Conclusion

Taken together, this data suggests that R. acetosa extract exhibits anti-platelet activity via modulating MAPK, PI3K/Akt pathways, and integrin α_IIbβ₃-mediated inside-out and outside-in signaling, and it may protect against the development of platelet-related cardiovascular diseases.

A novel herbal formulation consisting of red ginseng extract and Epimedium koreanum Nakai-attenuated dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice

Background

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a commonly encountered large intestine disease in the contemporary world that terminates into colorectal cancer; therefore, the timely treatment of UC is of major concern. Panax ginseng Meyer is an extensively consumed herbal commodity in South East Asian countries, especially Korea. It exhibits a wide range of biologically beneficial qualities for almost head-to-toe ailments in the body. Epimedium koreanum Nakai (EKN) is also a widely used traditional Korean herbal medicine used for treating infertility, rheumatism, and cardiovascular diseases.

Materials and methods

Separately the anti-inflammatory activities of both red ginseng extracts (RGEs) and EKNs had been demonstrated in the past in various inflammatory models; however, we sought to unravel the anti-inflammatory activities of the combination of these two extracts in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis in mice model because the allopathic remedies for UC involve more side effects than benefits.

Results

Our results have shown that the combination of RGE + EKN synergistically alleviated the macroscopic lesions in DSS-induced colitic mice such as colon shortening, hematochezia, and weight loss. Moreover, it restored the histopathological lesions in mice and decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines through the repression of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and nucleotide-binding domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP-3) expression. In vitro, this combination also reduced the magnitude of nitric acid (NO), pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokine through NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways in RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cells.

Conclusion

In the light of these findings, we can endorse this combination extract as a functional food for the prophylactic as well as therapeutic treatment of UC in humans together with allopathic remedies.

Anti-platelet role of Korean ginseng and ginsenosides in cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases prevail among modern societies and underdeveloped countries, and a high mortality rate has also been reported by the World Health Organization affecting millions of people worldwide. Hyperactive platelets are the major culprits in thrombotic disorders. A group of drugs is available to deal with such platelet-related disorders; however, sometimes, side effects and complications caused by these drugs outweigh their benefits. Ginseng and its nutraceuticals have been reported to reduce the impact of thrombotic conditions and improve cardiovascular health by antiplatelet mechanisms. This review provides (1) a comprehensive insight into the available pharmacological options from ginseng and ginsenosides (saponin and nonsaponin fractions) for platelet-originated cardiovascular disorders; (2) a discussion on the impact of specific functional groups on the modulation of platelet functions and how structural modifications among ginsenosides affect platelet activation, which may further provide a basis for drug design, optimization, and the development of ginsenoside scaffolds as pharmacological antiplatelet agents; (3) an insight into the synergistic effects of ginsenosides on platelet functions; and (4) a perspective on future research and the development of ginseng and ginsenosides as super nutraceuticals.

Molecular Detection and Subtyping of Blastocystis in Korean Pigs

Blastocystis is one of the most commonly detected genera of protozoan parasites in the human intestines as well as the intestines of many other species such as pigs in several geographical regions worldwide. However, no studies have examined Blastocystis in pigs in Korea. In this study, PCR and nucleotide sequencing were performed to evaluate the genetic diversity and zoonotic potential of Blastocystis using pig fecal samples. We obtained 646 stool samples from groups of piglets, weaners, growers, finishers, and sows in Korea. A total of 390 Blastocystis-positive samples were identified, and the infection rate was 60.4%. The infection rates were significantly related to age and region. The 4 subtypes (STs) of Blastocystis confirmed by phylogenetic analysis were ST1, ST2, ST3, and ST5, indicating the high genetic diversity of Blastocystis in Korean pigs. ST5 was highly distributed in Korean pigs among detected STs in this study. Some sequences were closely related to those of Blastocystis isolated from humans. This is the first study of Blastocystis in pigs in Korea. Based on the results, Blastocystis is prevalent in Korean pigs. Although a small number of samples were obtained in some areas, the clinical development of Blastocystis infection in pigs and potential for human transmission should be further examined.

MUDENG Expression Profiling in Cohorts and Brain Tumor Biospecimens to Evaluate Its Role in Cancer

Mu-2-related death-inducing gene (MUDENG, MuD) has been reported to be involved in the tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-associated apoptotic pathway of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells; however, its expression level, interactors, and role in tumors are yet to be discovered. To investigate whether MuD expression correlates with cancer progression, we analyzed The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database using UALCAN and Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA). Differential expression of MuD was detected in 6 and 10 cancer types, respectively. Validation performed using data from the Gene Expression Omnibus database showed that MuD expression is downregulated in KIRC tumor and correlate with higher chance of survival. Upregulation of MuD expression in GBM tumors was detected through GEPIA and high MuD expression correlated with higher survival in proneural GBM, whereas the opposite was observed in classical GBM subtype. GBM biospecimens analysis shows that MuD protein level was upregulated in three of six specimens, whereas mRNA level remained relatively unaltered. Therefore, MuD may exert differential effects according to subtypes, and/or be subjected to post-translational regulation in GBM. Correlation analysis between GBM cohort database and experiments using GBM cell lines revealed its positive effect on regulation of protein phosphatase 2 regulatory subunit B’Epsilon (PPP2R5E) and son of sevenless homolog 2 (SOS2). STRING database analysis indicated that the components of adaptor protein complexes putatively interacted with MuD but showed no correlation in terms of survival of patients with different GBM subtypes. In summary, we analyzed the expression of MuD in publicly available cancer patient data sets, GBM cell lines, and biospecimens to demonstrate its potential role as a biomarker for cancer prognosis and identified its candidate interacting molecules.

Spirobenzofuran (SBF): An isolate from Acremonium sp. HKI 0230 and Coprinus echinosporus suppresses inflammation in RAW 264.7 cells

Inflammation is an aggregate of different pathologic responses in body that leads to life threatening conditions if not combated at early stages. A variety of chemical medications from low quality to high quality are available in market for treatment of inflammation. However the side effects posed by these medications cannot be ignored. Here in our study we have shown for the first time, the anti-inflammatory effects of SBF compound that is obtained from wild mushroom species that are Acremonium sp. HKI 0230 and Coprinus echinosporus. We employed Nitric oxide determination, cell viability assay, RT-PCR and western blot analysis to check the anti-inflammatory effects of SBF. The antioxidant activity of this compound has been studied in detail in past, but our results have shown that SBF potently suppressed the Nitric oxide production (NO) without any cytotoxicity to the model cell line; RAW 264.7 cells. It also inhibited the production of major proinflammatory mediators and cytokines i.e. iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. SBF elicited its anti-inflammatory effects via the canonical NF-κB and MAPK pathway. Taken together, our results have shown that SBF exhibits excellent anti-inflammatory activity in vitro and further experimentations may warrant its application as a commercial herbal remedy for inflammation related anomalies.

Interleukin 1 alpha (IL-1α) restricts Brucella abortus 544 survival through promoting lysosomal-mediated killing and NO production in macrophages

The interleukin-1 (IL-1) family of cytokines, particularly IL-1α and IL-1β, are potent regulators of innate immunity that play key roles in host defense against infection, hence we evaluated the role of these cytokines in the control of brucellosis within RAW 264.7 cells. Marked expression and secretion of IL-1α and IL-1β were observed during Brucella infection in macrophages. Blocking of IL-1α and IL-1β reduced induction of IL-10, IL-1β and TNF, and IL-6 and TNF, respectively. However, interference of IL-1α and not IL-1β signaling notably augmented susceptibility of macrophages to Brucella infection which indicates that IL-1α is required for a downstream signaling cascade of innate immunity for efficient clearance of Brucella. This protection requires binding to interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) mediated by myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling and associated with increased lysosomal-mediated killing and nitric oxide (NO) production. Expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was observed to be mediated via NF-κB-p50, HIF-1α and CEBPA, but negatively controlled by CEBPB while transcription of some important phagolysosomal genes was regulated via CEBPA and c-Jun which indicates the important role of these transcription factors in the control of Brucella infection in macrophages via IL-1α signaling pathway.

Schizonepeta tenuifolia inhibits collagen stimulated platelet function via suppressing MAPK and Akt signaling

The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is increasing at a rapid pace in developed countries, and CVDs are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Natural products and ethnomedicine have been shown to reduce the risk of CVDs. Schizonepeta (S.) tenuifolia is a medicinal plant widely used in China, Korea, and Japan and is known to exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities. We hypothesized that given herbal plant exhibit pharmacological activities against CVDs, we specifically explored its effects on platelet function. Platelet aggregation was evaluated using standard light transmission aggregometry. Intracellular calcium mobilization was assessed using Fura-2/AM, and granule secretion (ATP release) was measured in a luminometer. Fibrinogen binding to integrin αⅡbβ3, was assessed using flow cytometry. Phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling molecules and activation of the protein kinase B (Akt) was assessed using Western blot assays. S. tenuifolia, extract potently and significantly inhibited platelet aggregation, calcium mobilization, granule secretion, and fibrinogen binding to integrin αⅡbβ3. Moreover, all extracts significantly inhibited MAPK and Akt phosphorylation. S. tenuifolia extract inhibited platelet aggregation and granule secretion, and attenuated collagen mediated GPVI downstream signaling, indicating the potential therapeutic effects of these plant extracts on the cardiovascular system and platelet function. We suggest that S. tenuifolia extract may be a potent candidate to treat platelet-related CVDs and to be used as an antiplatelet and antithrombotic agent.

The anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of Korean black ginseng

BACKGROUND

Different processing conditions alter the ginseng bioactive compounds, promoting or reducing its anti-inflammatory effects. We compared black ginseng (BG) - that have been steamed 5 times - with red ginseng (RG).

HYPOTHESIS/ PURPOSE

To compare the anti-inflammatory activities and the anti-nociceptive properties of RG and BG.

METHODS

Nitric Oxide (NO) and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromide (MTT) assay, quantitative Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR), western blot, xylene-induced ear edema, carrageenan-induced paw edema RESULTS: The ginsenoside contents were confirmed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and has been altered through increased processing. The highest concentration of these extracts inhibited NO production to near-basal levels in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 without exhibiting cytotoxicity. Pro-inflammatory cytokine expression at the mRNA level was investigated using qRT-PCR. Comparatively, BG exhibited better inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators, iNOS and COX-2 and pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. Protein expression was determined using western blot analysis and BG exhibited stronger inhibition. Xylene-induced ear edema model in mice and carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats were carried out and tested with the effects of ginseng as well as dexamethasone and indomethacin - commonly used drugs. BG is a more potent anti-inflammatory agent, possesses anti-nociceptive properties, and has a strong potency comparable to the NSAIDs.

CONCLUSION

BG has more potent anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects due to the change in ginsenoside component with increased processing.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Rg3-Enriched Korean Red Ginseng Extract in Murine Model of Sepsis

Ginseng has therapeutic effects on various bodily disorders ranging from minor inflammation to major cardiovascular diseases. In our study, we explored the anti-inflammatory effects of Rg3-enriched red ginseng extract (Rg3-RGE), a ginsenoside belonging to the panaxadiol group. We employed nitric oxide assay (NO) and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western blot, and hematoxylin and eosin staining (H&E) to elucidate the anti-inflammatory activity of Rg3-RGE. Rg3-RGE potently suppressed NO production in the murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7 cells, without any cytotoxicity across dosages. Additionally, it inhibited the mRNA expression of proinflammatory mediators and cytokines like iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Moreover it also inhibited the levels of malondialdehyde levels in serum of septic shock mice. Immunoblot analysis showed that Rg3-RGE induced anti-inflammatory signal transduction via the NF-κB and MAPK pathways. A remarkable attenuation of inflammation by oral treatment with Rg3-RGE in mice was observed in the survival study. The in vivo study using a septic shock mouse model also showed similar results as the in vitro study. Our findings suggest that Rg3-RGE can potentially be a potent anti-inflammatory agent that likely mediates its anti-inflammatory effects via the NF-κB and MAPK pathways.

Mediation of antiinflammatory effects of Rg3-enriched red ginseng extract from Korean Red Ginseng via retinoid X receptor α-peroxisome-proliferating receptor γ nuclear receptors

Background

Ginseng has a wide range of beneficial effects on health, such as the mitigation of minor and major inflammatory diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. There are abundant data regarding the health-enhancing properties of whole ginseng extracts and single ginsenosides; however, no study to date has determined the receptors that mediate the effects of ginseng extracts. In this study, for the first time, we explored whether the antiinflammatory effects of Rg3-enriched red ginseng extract (Rg3-RGE) are mediated by retinoid X receptor α–peroxisome-proliferating receptor γ (RXRα-PPARγ) heterodimer nuclear receptors.

Methods

Nitric oxide assay, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromide assay, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, nuclear hormone receptor–binding assay, and molecular docking analyses were used for this study.

Results

Rg3-RGE exerted antiinflammatory effects via nuclear receptor heterodimers between RXRα and PPARγ agonists and antagonists.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that Rg3-RGE can be considered a potent antiinflammatory agent, and these effects are likely mediated by the nuclear receptor RXRα-PPARγ heterodimer.

A comparative study on immune-stimulatory and antioxidant activities of various types of ginseng extracts in murine and rodent models

Background

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a widely used traditional herbal supplement that possesses various health-enhancing efficacies. Various ginseng products are available in market, especially in the Korean peninsula, in the form of drinks, tablets, and capsules. The different ginseng types include the traditional red ginseng extract (RGE), white ginseng, and black red ginseng extract (BRGE). Their fermented and enzyme-treated products are also available. Different treatment regimens alter the bioavailability of certain compounds present in the respective ginseng extracts. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to compare the antioxidant and immune-stimulating activities of RGE, BRGE, and fermented red ginseng extract (FRGE).

Methods

We used an acetaminophen-induced oxidative stress model for investigating the reduction of oxidative stress by RGE, BRGE, and FRGE in Sprague Dawley rats. A cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression model was used to evaluate the immune-stimulating activities of these ginseng extracts in BALB/c mice.

Results

Our results showed that most prominently, RGE (in almost all experiments) exhibited excellent antioxidant effects via increasing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities in the liver and decreasing serum 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase levels compared with the groups treated with FRGE and BRGE. Moreover, RGE significantly increased the number of white blood cells, especially T and B lymphocytes, and antibody-forming cells in the spleen and thymus, and it also activated a number of immune cell subtypes.

Conclusion

Taken together, these results indicate that RGE is the best supplement for consumption in everyday life for overall health-enhancing properties.

Serological Detection of Antibodies against Anaplasma spp. in Cattle Reared in the Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea

Anaplasmosis is a tick-borne, non-contagious, zoonotic disease caused by Anaplasma spp., which include Anaplasma marginale, A. centrale, A. phagocytophilum, A. platys, A. ovis, and A. bovis. Recently, in Korea, the prevalence of Anaplasma spp. has been investigated in some animals, such as dogs, horses, goats, cats, and Korean water deer. In cattle, A. marginale is the most virulent species and regarded as the typical type of species. However, data on the seroprevalence of Anaplasma spp. in cattle in Korea during the last decade is limited. This study was designed to investigate the seroprevalence of bovine anaplasmosis in Korea. From 2010 to 2013, blood samples were collected from 568 cattle. Forty animals (7.0%) tested seropositive for Anaplasma spp. by cELISA. Despite that current bovine anaplasmosis seropositivity rate in the Gyeongsangbuk-do is lower than those in tropical countries, anaplasmosis needs to be regarded as a concerning disease. The identification of the specific Anaplasma species infecting cattle in this province requires additional molecular studies. Moreover, further monitoring and control programs for bovine anaplasmosis is required, and the information from this study will be beneficial to develop these programs.