1
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Hayes JE, Prata AA, Fisher RM, Lindley MR, S Stuetz RM. Odorous emissions of synthetic turf and its relationship with local communities. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 357:124462. [PMID: 38944183 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/01/2024]
Abstract
Synthetic turf has been a mainstay of field sports and local communities for decades, and in that time, has faced both community and government pressure to ensure its safety and fitness for purpose. Considerable research and regulations have been applied to synthetic turf with regards to its safety, construction, potential toxicity, sports impact, as well as environmental considerations. However, very little attention has been paid to reports of odorous impacts from synthetic turf fields. This is problematic as odours are both a source of most complaints by communities towards other industries, as well as the fact that synthetic turf has a unique placement within communities themselves. It is wholly possible that the concerns surrounding synthetic turf are being modulated by the odours that the fields themselves produce through previously identified psychological mechanisms. As a result, ensuring good standards for synthetic turf with regards to odorous emissions should be benchmarked for community acceptability. This review investigates prior research into synthetic turf with regards to identified volatile organic compounds emitted, as well as proposing the means by which community stakeholders engage with synthetic turf, as well as how they should be consulted. From here, this review provides trajectories for future research within this space, and how regulatory bodies should address potential issues. This research space is currently in its infancy and therefore information relating to synthetic turf odour factors must be carefully considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Hayes
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW, Australia.
| | - A A Prata
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW, Australia
| | - R M Fisher
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW, Australia
| | | | - R M S Stuetz
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW, Australia
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2
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Siegel KR, Murray BR, Gearhart J, Kassotis CD. In vitro endocrine and cardiometabolic toxicity associated with artificial turf materials. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 111:104562. [PMID: 39245243 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2024] [Revised: 08/30/2024] [Accepted: 09/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/10/2024]
Abstract
Artificial turf, a consumer product growing in usage in the United States, contains diverse chemicals, some of which are endocrine disruptive. Endocrine effects from turf material extracts have been primarily limited to one component, crumb rubber, of these multi-material products. We present in vitro bioactivities from non-weathered and weathered turf sample extracts, including multiple turf components. All weathered samples were collected from real-world turf fields. Non-weathered versus weathered differentially affected the androgen (AR), estrogen (ER), glucocorticoid (GR), and thyroid receptors (TR) in reporter bioassays. While weathered extracts more efficaciously activated peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ), this did not translate to greater in vitro adipogenic potential. All turf extracts activated the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). High AhR-efficacy extracts induced modest rat cardiomyoblast toxicity in an AhR-dependent manner. Our data demonstrate potential endocrine and cardiometabolic effects from artificial turf material extracts, warranting further investigation into potential exposures and human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle R Siegel
- Department of Pharmacology and Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Brooklynn R Murray
- Department of Pharmacology and Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Jeff Gearhart
- Research Director, Ecology Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48104, United States
| | - Christopher D Kassotis
- Department of Pharmacology and Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, United States.
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3
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Dziejarski B, Faust R, Serafin J, Krzyżyńska R, Andersson K, Knutsson P. Insights into Activation Pathways of Recovered Carbon Black (rCB) from End-of-Life Tires (ELTs) by Potassium-Containing Agents. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:31814-31831. [PMID: 39072088 PMCID: PMC11270716 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c03160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Revised: 05/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
This study explores the conversion of recovered carbon black (rCB) from end-of-life tires (ELTs) into activated carbons (ACs) using potassium-based activators, targeting enhanced textural properties development. The research focuses on the interaction between potassium and rCB, with the aim of understanding the underlying mechanisms of rCB activation. The study investigates several parameters of KOH activation, including the KOH/rCB mass ratio (1:3 to 1:6), activation temperatures (700-900 °C), activation time (1-4 h), and heating rate (5-13 °C/min). It also assesses the effects of different potassium salts (KCl, K2CO3, CH3COOK, and K2C2O4) on porosity and surface characteristics of the rCB/ACs. Furthermore, the role of the physical state of KOH as an activator (solid and gas-solid) was examined, alongside a comparative analysis with NaOH to evaluate the distinct effects of potassium and sodium ions. Optimal conditions were identified at an 800 °C activation temperature, a 7 °C/min heating rate, a 1:5 KOH/rCB ratio, and a 4 h activation period. X-ray diffraction analysis showed the formation of several K-phases, such as K2CO3, K2CO3·1.5H2O, K4(CO3)2·(H2O)3, KHCO3, and K2O. The effectiveness of the potassium salts was ranked as follows: KOH > K2C2O4 > CH3COOK > K2CO3 > KCl, with KOH emerging as the most effective. Notably, the gas-solid reaction of KOH/rCB was indicated as a contributor to the activation process. Additionally, it was concluded that the role of KOH in enhancing the textural properties of rCB was primarily due to the interaction of K+ ions with the graphite-like structure of rCB, compared to the effects observed with NaOH. This research introduces novel insights into the specific roles of different potassium salts and KOH activation conditions in optimizing the textural characteristics of rCB/ACs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bartosz Dziejarski
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Division of Energy and Materials, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department
of Space, Earth and Environment, Division of Energy Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
- Faculty
of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University
of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Robin Faust
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Division of Energy and Materials, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jarosław Serafin
- Department
of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, University
of Barcelona, Martí
i Franquès, 1-11, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Renata Krzyżyńska
- Faculty
of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University
of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Klas Andersson
- Department
of Space, Earth and Environment, Division of Energy Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Pavleta Knutsson
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Division of Energy and Materials, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
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Duque-Villaverde A, Armada D, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Recycled tire rubber materials in the spotlight. Determination of hazardous and lethal substances. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 929:172674. [PMID: 38657808 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
One way of recycling end-of-life tires is by shredding them to obtain crumb rubber, a microplastic material (<0.5 mm), used as infill in artificial turf sports fields or as playground flooring. There is emerging concern about the health and environmental consequences that this type of surfaces can cause. This research aims to develop an analytical methodology able to determine 11 compounds of environmental and health concern, including antiozonants such as N-1,3-dimethylbutyl-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) or N, N´-diphenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (DPPD), and vulcanization and crosslinking agents, such as N-cyclohexylbenzothiazole-2-sulfenamide (CBS), 1,3-di-o-tolylguanidine (DTG) or hexamethoxymethylmelamine (HMMM) from tire rubber. Ultrasound assisted extraction followed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UAE-LC-MS/MS) is validated demonstrating suitability. The methodology is applied to monitor the target compounds in forty real crumb rubber samples of different origin including, football pitches, outdoor and indoor playgrounds, urban pavements, commercial samples, and tires. Several alternative infill materials, such as sand, cork granulates, thermoplastic elastomers and coconut fibres, are also collected and analysed. All the target analytes are identified and quantified in the crumb rubber samples. The antiozonant 6PPD is present at the highest concentrations up to 0.2 % in new synthetic fields. The tire rubber-derived chemical 6PPD-quinone (2-((4-methylpentan-2-yl)amino)-5-(phenylamino)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione), recently linked to acute mortality in salmons, is found in all types of crumb rubber samples attaining concentrations up to 40 μg g-1 in football pitches. The crosslinking agent HMMM is detected in most of the playing surfaces, at concentrations up to 36 μg g-1. The tested infill alternatives are free of most of the target compounds. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the largest study considering the target compounds in tire rubber particles and the first to focus on these compounds in playgrounds including the analysis of HMMM, 6PPD-quinone and DTG in crumb rubber used as an infill material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres Duque-Villaverde
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Daniel Armada
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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5
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Zhao S, Liu M, Meng X, Liu A, Duo L. Waste rubber - Black pollution reframed as a global issue: Ecological challenges and sustainability initiatives. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 356:124291. [PMID: 38823550 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
In contrast to "white pollution" originating from waste plastics, waste rubber is often referred to as "black pollution." The quantity and variety of waste rubber are increasing at an alarming rate, with a considerable fraction entering the global ecosystem via various pathways. This study presents the first critical review of waste rubber research with a focus on the risks associated with toxicant discharge and existing problems in waste rubber disposal, management, and recycling practices. We aim to obtain a comprehensive understanding of current research, particularly regarding the ecological impacts of these wastes, highlight major gaps, and propose the most significant research directions. A total of 192 studies published in journals were critically analysed. The importance of conducting long-term and large-scale experiments and developing efficient waste rubber recycling systems is also emphasised. This study highlights the need to address the challenges posed by waste rubber pollution and offers insights and references for undertaking ecological risk assessments and understanding the mechanisms underlying toxicant behaviour. Suggestions and countermeasures are proposed with ecosystem sustainability as the ultimate goal. Further long-term, comprehensive, and systematic research in this area is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shulan Zhao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Menghan Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Xiuying Meng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Anran Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Li'an Duo
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China.
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6
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Hua J, Lundqvist M, Naidu S, Ekvall MT, Cedervall T. Environmental risks of breakdown nanoplastics from synthetic football fields. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 347:123652. [PMID: 38447657 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
The widespread use of synthetic turf in sports has raised health concerns due to potential risks from nanoplastic inhalation or ingestion. Our research focused on detecting nanoplastics in drainage water from a synthetic football field and evaluating the toxicity of these materials after mechanical fragmentation. We collected and analysed drainage water samples for polymer content and subjected high-density polyethylene (HDPE) straws and ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) granules used on synthetic football fields, to mechanical breakdown to create nanoplastics. The results indicated the presence of trace amounts of EPDM in the water samples. Furthermore, the toxicological assessment revealed that the broken-down nanoplastics and leachate from the surface of EPDM rubber granules exhibited high toxicity to Daphnia magna, while nanoplastics from the inner material exhibited no significant toxicity. The findings highlight the urgent need for future research to identify these specific toxic agents from the surface of EPDM granules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Hua
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; NanoLund, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Martin Lundqvist
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; NanoLund, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Shanti Naidu
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Mikael T Ekvall
- NanoLund, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Aquatic Ecology, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Tommy Cedervall
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; NanoLund, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
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7
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Xu JY, Ding J, Du S, Zhu D. Tire particles and its leachates: Impact on antibiotic resistance genes in coastal sediments. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 465:133333. [PMID: 38147751 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Tire particles (TPs), a significant group of microplastics, can be discharged into the coastal environments in various ways. However, our understanding of how TPs impact the antibiotic resistance and pathogenic risks of microorganisms in coastal sediments remains limited. In this study, we used metagenomics to investigate how TPs and their leachates could affect the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), virulence factor genes (VFGs), and their potential risks to the living creatures such as soil invertebrates and microorganisms in the coastal sediments. We discovered that TP addition significantly increased the abundance and diversity of ARGs and VFGs in coastal sediments, with raw TPs displayed higher impacts than TP leachates and TPs after leaching on ARGs and VFGs. With increasing TP exposure concentrations, the co-occurrence frequency of ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) in the same contig also increased, suggesting that TPs could enhance the dispersal risk of ARGs. Our metagenome-based binning analysis further revealed that exposure to TPs increased the abundance of potentially pathogenic antibiotic-resistant bacteria (PARB). In addition, chemical additives of TP leachates (e.g., Zn and N-cyclohexylformamide) significantly affected the changes of ARGs in the pore water. In summary, our study provides novel insights into the adverse effects of TP pollutions on aggravating the dissemination and pathogenic risks of ARGs and PARB in the coastal environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Yang Xu
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Ningbo Urban Environment Observation and Research Station, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, People' s Republic of China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People' s Republic of China
| | - Jing Ding
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, People' s Republic of China
| | - Shuai Du
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Ningbo Urban Environment Observation and Research Station, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, People' s Republic of China; Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Urban Environmental Processes and Pollution Control, CAS Haixi Industrial Technology Innovation Center in Beilun, Ningbo 315830, People' s Republic of China.
| | - Dong Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Ningbo Urban Environment Observation and Research Station, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, People' s Republic of China; Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Urban Environmental Processes and Pollution Control, CAS Haixi Industrial Technology Innovation Center in Beilun, Ningbo 315830, People' s Republic of China.
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8
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Ferreira T, Homem V, Cereceda-Balic F, Fadic X, Alves A, Ratola N. Are volatile methylsiloxanes in downcycled tire microplastics? Levels and human exposure estimation in synthetic turf football fields. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:11950-11967. [PMID: 38228949 PMCID: PMC10869416 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-31832-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Downcycled rubber, derived from end-of-life tires (ELTs), is frequently applied as crumb rubber (CR) as infill of synthetic turf in sports facilities. This practice has been questioned in recent years as numerous studies have reported the presence of potentially hazardous chemicals in this material. CR particles fall into the category of microplastics (MPs), making them possible vectors for emerging micropollutants. A preliminary study where volatile methylsiloxanes (VMSs) were found in CR originated the hypothesis that VMSs are present in this material worldwide. Consequently, the present work evaluates for the first time the levels and trends of seven VMSs in CR from synthetic turf football fields, while attempting to identify the main sources and impacts of these chemicals. A total of 135 CR samples and 12 other of alternative materials were analyzed, employing an ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the presence of VMSs was confirmed in all samples, in total concentrations ranging from 1.60 to 5089 ng.g-1. The levels were higher in commercial CR (before field application), a reflection of the use of VMS-containing additives in tire production and/or the degradation of silicone polymers employed in vehicles. The VMSs generally decreased over time on the turf, as expected given their volatile nature and the wearing of the material. Finally, the human exposure doses to VMSs in CR (by dermal absorption and ingestion) for people in contact with synthetic turf in football fields were negligible (maximum total exposure of 20.5 ng.kgBW-1.year-1) in comparison with the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) reference doses: 1.35 × 109 ng.kgBW-1.year-1 for D4 and 1.83 × 109 ng.kgBW-1.year-1 for D5. Nevertheless, more knowledge on exposure through inhalation and the combined effects of all substances is necessary to provide further corroboration. This work proved the presence of VMSs in CR from ELTs, another family of chemical of concern to take into account when studying MPs as vectors of other contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Ferreira
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE-Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Homem
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE-Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Francisco Cereceda-Balic
- Centre for Environmental Technologies (CETAM) and Department of Chemistry, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Ximena Fadic
- Centre for Environmental Technologies (CETAM) and Department of Chemistry, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Arminda Alves
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE-Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal.
- ALiCE-Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal.
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9
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Huang Q, Wang J, Wang J, Yu D, Zhan Y, Liu Z. Emerging Health Risks of Crumb Rubber: Inhalation of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals via Saliva During Artificial Turf Activities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:21005-21015. [PMID: 38048287 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c03278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Crumb rubber (CR) is a commonly used infill material in artificial turf worldwide. However, the potential health risk associated with exposure to CR containing environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) remains under investigation. Herein, we observed the widespread presence of CR particles in the range of 2.8-51.4 μg/m3 and EPFRs exceeding 6 × 1015 spins/g in the ambient air surrounding artificial turf fields. Notably, the abundance of these particles tended to increase with the number of operating years of the playing fields. Furthermore, by analyzing saliva samples from 200 participants, we established for the first time that EPFR-carrying CR could be found in saliva specimens, suggesting the potential for inhaling them through the oral cavity and their exposure to the human body. After 40 min of exercise on the turf, we detected a substantial presence of EPFRs, reaching as high as (1.15 ± 1.00) × 1016 spins of EPFR per 10 mL of saliva. Moreover, the presence of EPFRs considerably increased the oxidative potential of CR, leading to the inactivation of Ca2+, redox reactions, and changes in spatial binding of the α-1,4-chain of salivary amylase to Ca2+, all of which could influence human saliva health. Our study provides insights into a new pathway of human exposure to CR with EPFRs in artificial turf infill, indicating an increased human health risk of CR exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian'en Huang
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive and Highly Efficient Utilization of Salt Lake Resources, Qinghai Institute of Salt Lakes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Geology and Environment of Salt Lakes, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
- Faculty of Agriculture, Life, and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jianqun Wang
- Department of Stomatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, China
| | - Jianping Wang
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive and Highly Efficient Utilization of Salt Lake Resources, Qinghai Institute of Salt Lakes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Geology and Environment of Salt Lakes, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
| | - Dongmei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive and Highly Efficient Utilization of Salt Lake Resources, Qinghai Institute of Salt Lakes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Geology and Environment of Salt Lakes, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
| | - Yuanbo Zhan
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
| | - Ze Liu
- Key Laboratory of Comprehensive and Highly Efficient Utilization of Salt Lake Resources, Qinghai Institute of Salt Lakes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Geology and Environment of Salt Lakes, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
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10
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de Haan WP, Quintana R, Vilas C, Cózar A, Canals M, Uviedo O, Sanchez-Vidal A. The dark side of artificial greening: Plastic turfs as widespread pollutants of aquatic environments. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 334:122094. [PMID: 37392868 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023]
Abstract
Artificial turf (AT) is a surfacing material that simulates natural grass by using synthetic, mainly plastic, fibers in different shapes, sizes and properties. AT has spread beyond sports facilities and today shapes many urban landscapes, from private lawns to rooftops and public venues. Despite concerns regarding the impacts of AT, little is known about the release of AT fibers into natural environment. Here, for the first time, we specifically investigate the presence of AT fibers in river and ocean waters as major conduits and final destination of plastic debris transported by water runoff. Our sampling survey showed that, AT fibers - composed mainly of polyethylene and polypropylene - can constitute over 15% of the mesoplastics and macroplastics content, suggesting that AT fibers may contribute significantly to plastic pollution. Up to 20,000 fibers a day flowed down through the river, and up to 213,200 fibers per km2 were found floating on the sea surface of nearshore areas. AT, apart from impacting on urban biodiversity, urban runoff, heat island formation, and hazardous chemical leaching, is a major source of plastic pollution to natural aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- William P de Haan
- GRC Geociències Marines, Departament de Dinàmica de la Terra i de l'Oceà, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rocío Quintana
- Departamento de Biología, University of Cadiz and European University of the Seas (SEA-EU), Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), E-11510, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - César Vilas
- Andalusian Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research and Training (IFAPA), Centro "El Toruño", Camino Tiro del Pichón, S/N, E-11500, El Puerto de Santa María, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Andrés Cózar
- Departamento de Biología, University of Cadiz and European University of the Seas (SEA-EU), Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), E-11510, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - Miquel Canals
- GRC Geociències Marines, Departament de Dinàmica de la Terra i de l'Oceà, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Oriol Uviedo
- GRC Geociències Marines, Departament de Dinàmica de la Terra i de l'Oceà, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Sanchez-Vidal
- GRC Geociències Marines, Departament de Dinàmica de la Terra i de l'Oceà, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
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11
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Zhang X, Gu Y, Wang Y, Liu J, Jiang Y, Tian Y, Zhang Z, Tan C, Wang Y, Li H, Hu Y. Occurrence and risk assessment of PAHs from athletic fields under typical rainfall events. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2023; 87:2159-2171. [PMID: 37186621 PMCID: wst_2023_092 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2023.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Six polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) including naphthalene (Nap), fluorene (Flu), phenanthrene (Phe), fluoranthene (Fla), pyrene (Pyr), and chrysene (Chr) were detected in runoff from five athletic fields during three rainfall events. The event mean concentration (EMC) of ∑6PAHs ranged from 3.96 to 23.23 μg/L, which was much higher than the EMC in urban traffic area runoff. Except for Nap, the PAH concentrations followed in the order of artificial turf > badminton court > basketball court > plastic runway > optennis court. The surface characteristics of the athletic fields, such as the composition of materials and roughness, played an essential role in the release of PAHs. ∑6PAHs concentration during the 2nd rainfall event (July 22nd) was the highest among the three rainfall events, indicating that high rainfall intensity facilitated the PAHs release. PAHs during three rainfall events showed little first flush effect except for the artificial turf during the 2nd (22nd July) and 3rd (29th July) rainfall events. The first flush effect could be affected by rainfall characters, PAH properties, and surface characteristics of athletic fields. Ecological risk assessment showed that PAHs in runoff corresponded to moderate-to-high risk, while health risk assessment showed that PAHs could pose a potential carcinogenic danger to human health via dermal contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoran Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Yuyang Gu
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Yinrui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail:
| | - Junfeng Liu
- Department of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Beijing Vocational College of Agriculture, Beijing 102442, China
| | - Yucheng Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail:
| | - Yiran Tian
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Ziyang Zhang
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Chaohong Tan
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail:
| | - Haiyan Li
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Yuansheng Hu
- Department of Civil Engineering and Construction, Faculty of Engineering and Design, Atlantic Technological University Sligo, Sligo F91YW50, Ireland
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12
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Zhao HN, Hu X, Gonzalez M, Rideout CA, Hobby GC, Fisher MF, McCormick CJ, Dodd MC, Kim KE, Tian Z, Kolodziej EP. Screening p-Phenylenediamine Antioxidants, Their Transformation Products, and Industrial Chemical Additives in Crumb Rubber and Elastomeric Consumer Products. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:2779-2791. [PMID: 36758188 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Recently, roadway releases of N,N'-substituted p-phenylenediamine (PPD) antioxidants and their transformation products (TPs) received significant attention due to the highly toxic 6PPD-quinone. However, the occurrence of PPDs and TPs in recycled tire rubber products remains uncharacterized. Here, we analyzed tire wear particles (TWPs), recycled rubber doormats, and turf-field crumb rubbers for seven PPD antioxidants, five PPD-quinones (PPDQs), and five other 6PPD TPs using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. PPD antioxidants, PPDQs, and other TPs were present in all samples with chemical profiles dominated by 6PPD, DTPD, DPPD, and their corresponding PPDQs. Interestingly, the individual [PPDQ]/[PPD] and [TP]/[PPD] ratios significantly increased as total concentrations of the PPD-derived chemical decreased, indicating that TPs (including PPDQs) dominated the PPD-derived compounds with increased environmental weathering. Furthermore, we quantified 15 other industrial rubber additives (including bonding agents, vulcanization accelerators, benzotriazole and benzothiazole derivatives, and diphenylamine antioxidants), observing that PPD-derived chemical concentrations were 0.5-6 times higher than these often-studied additives. We also screened various other elastomeric consumer products, consistently detecting PPD-derived compounds in lab stoppers, sneaker soles, and rubber garden hose samples. These data emphasize that PPD antioxidants, PPDQs, and related TPs are important, previously overlooked contaminant classes in tire rubbers and elastomeric consumer products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoqi Nina Zhao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
- Center for Urban Waters, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
| | - Ximin Hu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
- Center for Urban Waters, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
| | | | | | - Grant C Hobby
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
| | - Matthew F Fisher
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
| | - Carter J McCormick
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
| | - Michael C Dodd
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Kelly E Kim
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
| | - Zhenyu Tian
- Center for Urban Waters, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Edward P Kolodziej
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
- Center for Urban Waters, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington Tacoma, Tacoma, Washington 98421, USA
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13
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Chiba R, Fujinuma R, Yoshitomi T, Shimizu Y, Kobayashi M. Ingestion of rubber tips of artificial turf fields by goldfish. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1344. [PMID: 36693897 PMCID: PMC9873930 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28672-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine microplastics are one of the global environmental issues. The present study examined whether rubber tips of artificial sports fields could be marine microplastics. We observed the migration of rubber tips from the artificial turf field to the surrounding ditch connected to sewer pipes and then examined the ingestion of rubber tips using the goldfish Carassius auratus. The rubber tips found in sediments in the ditch suggest that the rubber tips could be sent to the river and released into the ocean. The goldfish ingested rubber tips with or without fish feed, and rubber tips were found in the intestine. However, the fish discharged the rubber tips within 48 h after ingestion. These results indicate that ingestion of the rubber tips was not accidental but an active behavior. Therefore, artificial turf sports fields could be a source of marine microplastics and may cause hazardous effects on wild fishes through ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rihito Chiba
- Department of Natural Sciences, International Christian University, 3-10-2 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Fujinuma
- Department of Natural Sciences, International Christian University, 3-10-2 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan
| | - Tomoyasu Yoshitomi
- Field Studies Institute for Environmental Education, Tokyo Gakugei University, 4-1-1 Nukuikita-Machi, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8501, Japan
| | - Yasuo Shimizu
- Department of Physical Education, International Christian University, 3-10-2 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan
| | - Makito Kobayashi
- Department of Natural Sciences, International Christian University, 3-10-2 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan.
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14
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Armada D, Martinez-Fernandez A, Celeiro M, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Assessment of the bioaccessibility of PAHs and other hazardous compounds present in recycled tire rubber employed in synthetic football fields. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159485. [PMID: 36257444 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Recycled tire crumb rubber (RTCR) surfaces contain harmful and carcinogenic substances, which can be ingested by the users of these facilities, mainly athletes and children. In this work, the potential in-vitro oral bioaccessibility of eighteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from RTCR employed as infill in synthetic football fields was studied in human synthetic body fluids (saliva, gastric, duodenal and bile), prepared according the Unified Bioaccessibility Method. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) using commercial sorbents and a new green material based on cork (cork industry by-product) were used to isolate the bioaccessible PAHs before gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The method was optimized and validated attending the analytical figures of merit. The feasibility of cork biosorbent for the extraction of the compounds was demonstrated, as well as the suitability of the UBM method to perform the digestion with good precision. The application to real samples collected from football fields demonstrated the presence of 17 of the 18 target PAHs in the biofluids. Most volatile PAHs such as NAP, ACY, ACE, FLU, PHN and ANC, achieved the highest bioaccessibility percentage levels. The carcinogenic B[a]P was detected in 75 % of the samples at concentrations up to 2.5 ng g-1 (bioaccessible fraction). Children exposure assessment was carried out to identify potential risk. Other hazardous and environmentally problematic compounds such as N-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine-quinone (6PPD-quinone), recently related with the dead of coho salmon, and hexamethoxymethylmelamine (HMMM), among others, were also detected. This is the first study in which the bioaccesibility from real crumb rubber samples of 15 out of the 16 PAHs considered as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the presence of 6PPD-quinone and HMMM in the bioaccessible fractions is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Armada
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Antia Martinez-Fernandez
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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15
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Zhou X, Luo Z, Wang H, Luo Y, Yu R, Zhou S, Wang Z, Hu G, Xing B. Machine learning application in forecasting tire wear particles emission in China under different potential socioeconomic and climate scenarios with tire microplastics context. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 441:129878. [PMID: 36084463 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Little information is available on different contribution of TMPs from tire wear particles (TWPs), recycled tire crumbs (RTCs) and tire repair-polished Debris (TRDs) in the environment at national scale and their potential tendency. In this study, the TWPs were predicted using machine learning method of CNN (Convolutional Neural Networks) algorithms under different potential socioeconomic and climate scenarios based on the estimation of TMPs in China. Results showed that TWPs emission exhibited the most important part of TMPs, followed by RTCs and TRDs in China. The three mentioned tire microplastics largely distributed in Chinese coastal provinces. After machine learning applied in CNN using the dataset of estimated emission of TWPs from 2008 to 2018, the express delivery volume and education funding at the current increased rate would not have significant impacts on TWPs emissions; Additionally, TWPs emissions were also sensitive to changes of economic and transportation development; Low temperature conditions would further promote TWPs emissions. Accordingly, the rational development of logistics and green economy, the equilibrium improvement of education quality, and the increase of public traffic with new energy would be helpful to mitigate TWPs emissions. The obtained findings can enhance the understanding TMPs emission at particular scale and their corresponding precise management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Zhou
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Zhuanxi Luo
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China.
| | - Haiming Wang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Yinchai Luo
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Ruilian Yu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Shufeng Zhou
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Zhenhong Wang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Environment, Minnan Normal University, Key Laboratory of Modern Separation and Analysis Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Pollution Monitoring and Control, Zhangzhou 363000, China
| | - Gongren Hu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Baoshan Xing
- Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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16
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Zuccaro P, Thompson DC, de Boer J, Watterson A, Wang Q, Tang S, Shi X, Llompart M, Ratola N, Vasiliou V. Artificial turf and crumb rubber infill: An international policy review concerning the current state of regulations. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2022; 9:100620. [PMID: 36644410 PMCID: PMC9838222 DOI: 10.1016/j.envc.2022.100620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although artificial turf fields are utilized widely around the world, sufficient research has not yet been conducted to assess the potential human and environmental health risks posed by the chemicals contained in the fields' fibers, backing, and often-used crumb rubber infill. Consequently, there is wide variation in governmental policies. OBJECTIVE Review the notable policies concerning artificial turf and crumb rubber infill in the European Union, United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada, China, Qatar, and the Global Stockholm Convention of the United Nations. METHODS Information was collected that included published papers, technical and policy reports, and grey literature. These were then analyzed by a collaborative group familiar with the environmental policies in their respective countries to extract the pertinent legislative or regulatory information. The group members were primarily identified through their involvement in publications pertinent to artificial turf and crumb rubber infill health research and included environmental health professors, active researchers, and governmental agency officials. Most information on direct policies was taken directly from reports provided to the public by various governmental agencies responsible for their countries' regulations, often available within the respective agency's online archives. RESULTS There are significant differences in the regulatory approaches adopted by the investigated countries with regards to artificial turf and its crumb rubber infill. Some regions, such as the European Union, have taken substantial steps to limit the fields' chemical components to which the public and environment are exposed. Other regions and countries have done far less to address the issue. Most policies relate directly to (i) the fields themselves, (ii) the microplastic components of crumb rubber infill, or (iii) the concentrations of harmful polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and heavy metals. CONCLUSION While nearly every country acknowledges the potential health risks posed by heavy metals, microplastics, PAHs, and PFAS chemicals, very few have actually implemented artificial turf and crumb rubber infill regulations and/or established adequate surveillance measures to protect those regularly exposed to the fields.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David C. Thompson
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Department of Environment and Health, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Andrew Watterson
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland
| | - Qiong Wang
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Song Tang
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaoming Shi
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition, and Food Sciences, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE- Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology, and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE - Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vasilis Vasiliou
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
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17
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Xie L, Zhu K, Jiang W, Lu H, Yang H, Deng Y, Jiang Y, Jia H. Toxic effects and primary source of the aged micro-sized artificial turf fragments and rubber particles: Comparative studies on laboratory photoaging and actual field sampling. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 170:107663. [PMID: 36450210 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Numerous micro-sized artificial turf fragments (MATF) and rubber particles (MRP) are generated and accumulated during the use of the artificial playing field. However, attention has rarely been paid to the potential toxic effects of MATF and MRP on sportsmen. In this study, the active components and chemical composition of aged MATF and MRP derived from laboratory photoaging and actual field sampling were detected, and their effects on cytotoxicity were examined correspondingly. Laboratory photoaging significantly increased environmental persistent free radicals (EPFRs), reactive oxygen species (ROS) abundances and oxidative potential (OP) levels on MATF and MRP, but they have limited cytotoxicity. Unfortunately, in the actual field, aged MATF and MRP with higher heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contents exhibited markedly higher cytotoxicity with the survival rate of cells of 78 % and 26 % (p < 0.05), although they had lower EPFRs and ROS yields. Correlation analysis revealed that the cell viability was closely linked to heavy metals of MATF (p < 0.05), and to organic hydroperoxide (OHP), PAHs and heavy metals of MRP (p < 0.05). By systematically considering the above results, heavy metals and PAHs enriched on MATF and MRP from the surrounding environment played the important role in the cytotoxicity, which was different from conventional perspectives. Our findings demonstrate that MATF and MRP associated with an artificial turf field contain potent mixtures of pollutants and can, therefore, be relevant yet underestimated factors contributing to the health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyang Xie
- Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Green Agriculture in Northwestern China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Kecheng Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Green Agriculture in Northwestern China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - Wenjun Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Green Agriculture in Northwestern China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Haodong Lu
- Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Green Agriculture in Northwestern China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Huiqiang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Green Agriculture in Northwestern China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Yongxi Deng
- Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Green Agriculture in Northwestern China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Yuanren Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Green Agriculture in Northwestern China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Hanzhong Jia
- Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Green Agriculture in Northwestern China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China.
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18
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Murphy M, Warner GR. Health impacts of artificial turf: Toxicity studies, challenges, and future directions. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 310:119841. [PMID: 35948114 PMCID: PMC10262297 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Many communities around the country are undergoing contentious battles over the installation of artificial turf. Opponents are concerned about exposure to hazardous chemicals leaching from the crumb rubber cushioning fill made of recycled tires, the plastic carpet, and other synthetic components. Numerous studies have shown that chemicals identified in artificial turf, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), are known carcinogens, neurotoxicants, mutagens, and endocrine disruptors. However, few studies have looked directly at health outcomes of exposure to these chemicals in the context of artificial turf. Ecotoxicology studies in invertebrates exposed to crumb rubber have identified risks to organisms whose habitats have been contaminated by artificial turf. Chicken eggs injected with crumb rubber leachate also showed impaired development and endocrine disruption. The only human epidemiology studies conducted related to artificial turf have been highly limited in design, focusing on cancer incidence. In addition, government agencies have begun their own risk assessment studies to aid community decisions. Additional studies in in vitro and in vivo translational models, ecotoxicological systems, and human epidemiology are strongly needed to consider exposure from both field use and runoff, components other than crumb rubber, sensitive windows of development, and additional physiological endpoints. Identification of potential health effects from exposures due to spending time at artificial turf fields and adjacent environments that may be contaminated by runoff will aid in risk assessment and community decision making on the use of artificial turf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maire Murphy
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Genoa R Warner
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA.
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19
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Ding J, Meng F, Chen H, Chen Q, Hu A, Yu CP, Chen L, Lv M. Leachable Additives of Tire Particles Explain the Shift in Microbial Community Composition and Function in Coastal Sediments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:12257-12266. [PMID: 35960262 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c02757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Massive microplastics are deposited in the coastal zone. Tire particles (TPs) are an important microplastic source, but little is known about how TPs affect the microbial community composition and function in coastal sediments and the role leachable additives play in TP toxicity. Here, a microcosm experiment was performed using coastal sediments amended with different doses of TPs and with their leachable additives to investigate their effects on the sediment microbial community composition and function. Environmentally relevant concentrations of TPs can change the microbial community structure, decrease community diversity, and inhibit nutrient cycling processes, including carbon fixation and degradation, nitrification, denitrification, and sulfur cycling in sediments. Notably, the raw TP and leachate treatments showed consistent effects. A variety of additives were found in the pore water of sediment, and they could explain over 90% of the variations of the community structure. Further modeling revealed that leachable additives not only directly influenced community function but also indirectly affected community diversity and function by shifting the community structure. In addition, rare taxa could be crucial mediators of ecological functions of sediment microbial community. Combined, this study provides novel insights into the role of TPs' leachable additives in affecting sediment microbial community and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Ding
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Fanyu Meng
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Han Chen
- School of Environmental and Material Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Qinglin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Anyi Hu
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Chang-Ping Yu
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Lingxin Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Min Lv
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Yantai 264003, China
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20
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Eriksson U, Titaley IA, Engwall M, Larsson M. Examination of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities, and levels of polyaromatic compounds (PACs) in tire granulates using in vitro bioassays and chemical analysis. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 298:134362. [PMID: 35307388 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Tire granulates recovered from end-of-life tires contain a complex mixture of chemicals, amongst them polyaromatic compounds (PACs), of which many are recognized to be toxic and persistent in the environment. Only a few of these PACs are regularly monitored. In this study a combined approach of chemical analysis and a battery of CALUX® in vitro bioassays was used to determine PAC concentrations and estrogenic, (anti)-androgenic and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activities in tire granulates. Tire granulates from a recycling company was analyzed for PAHs, alkyl-PAHs, oxy-PAHs and heterocyclic PACs (NSO-PACs), in total 85 PACs. The concentrations of PACs were between 42 and 144 mg/kg, with major contribution from PAHs (74-88%) followed by alkyl-PAHs (6.6-20%) and NSO-PACs (1.8-7.0%). The sum of eight priority PAHs were between 2.3 and 8.6 mg/kg, contributing with 4.7-8.2% of ∑PACs. Bioassay analysis showed presence of AhR agonists, estrogen receptor (ERα) agonists, and androgen receptor (AR) antagonists in the tire granulate samples. Only 0.8-2.4% of AhR-mediated activities could be explained by the chemical analysis. Benzo[k+j]fluoranthenes, benzo[b]fluoranthene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, 2-methylchrysene, and 3-methylchrysene were the major contributors to the AhR-mediated activities. The high contribution (98-99%) of unknown bioactive compounds to the bioassay effects in this study raises concerns and urges for further investigations of toxicants identification and source apportionment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrika Eriksson
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, 701 82, Sweden.
| | - Ivan A Titaley
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, 701 82, Sweden; Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, United States.
| | - Magnus Engwall
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, 701 82, Sweden.
| | - Maria Larsson
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, 701 82, Sweden.
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21
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Graça CAL, Rocha F, Gomes FO, Rocha MR, Homem V, Alves A, Ratola N. Presence of metals and metalloids in crumb rubber used as infill of worldwide synthetic turf pitches: Exposure and risk assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 299:134379. [PMID: 35339520 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Crumb rubber derived from end-of-life tires (ELTs) is frequently used as infill of synthetic turf pitches, promoting circular economy. Although important to reduce the accumulation of waste, the use of recycled ELTs can be a problem to human health and the environment, both by direct contact during pitch use and by the release of these elements to the surroundings, mostly via volatilization and leaching. The present study aimed to evaluate the distribution of metals in ELT-derived crumb rubber collected in artificial turf worldwide and assess possible trends by country, pitch age and type (indoor vs. outdoor). The concentration ranges observed are very wide, especially in outdoor fields and for the most abundant metals, namely Zn (2989-5246 mg/kg), Fe (196-5194 mg/kg), Mg (188-1795 mg/kg) and Al (159-1882 mg/kg). For Zn, the levels were mostly above the safe limits set in European directives for relatable matrices (soils and toy materials), and the same happened for Pb, a much more toxic metal at lower concentrations. A multi-pathway human exposure study was also performed, and the risk assessment shows non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks from accidental crumb rubber ingestion (with Cr and Pb as major contributors) above the acceptable values for all the receptors except adult bystanders, with a higher significance to younger individuals. These results bring a different perspective regarding most of the studies reporting low risks related with exposure to metals in crumb rubber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cátia A L Graça
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipe Rocha
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipa O Gomes
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - M Rosário Rocha
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Homem
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Arminda Alves
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal.
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22
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Tests of rubber granules used as artificial turf for football fields in terms of toxicity to human health and the environment. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6683. [PMID: 35461320 PMCID: PMC9035180 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10691-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Rubber waste, in the form of granules of styrene butadiene rubber and ethylene-propylene-diene-monomer with a particle size of 0.5 to 4 mm, is broadly used for the construction of synthetic surfaces of sport fields. This method of recycling may be significantly limited due to the restrictions on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content in rubber granules in the European Union since 2022. This also applies to the recommendations of the European Chemicals Agency in relation to the identification of other hazardous chemicals in this waste, including metal elements. The scope of the research included the identification of organotin compounds, PAHs content and 18 elements leached from recycled rubber granules in terms of substances harmful to human health and to natural environment. The research covered 84 samples of rubber granules collected from the surface of football pitches or supplied by recyclers in Poland. The test results showed an over-standard content of PAHs in rubber granules. This result confirms the need to develop alternative directions of rubber granules application: construction and hydro construction, reinforcing soil and roadsides, asphalt pavements, making retaining walls, anti-shock and anti-vibration slabs, soundproofing and damping screens, paving stones and landscaping elements.
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23
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Fořt J, Kobetičová K, Böhm M, Podlesný J, Jelínková V, Vachtlová M, Bureš F, Černý R. Environmental Consequences of Rubber Crumb Application: Soil and Water Pollution. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14071416. [PMID: 35406290 PMCID: PMC9003429 DOI: 10.3390/polym14071416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
End-of-life tires are utilized for various purposes, including sports pitches and playground surfaces. However, several substances used at the manufacture of tires can be a source of concerns related to human health or environment’s adverse effects. In this context, it is necessary to map whether this approach has the desired effect in a broader relation. While the negative effects on human health were investigated thoroughly and legislation is currently being revisited, the impact on aquatic or soil organisms has not been sufficiently studied. The present study deals with the exposure of freshwater and soil organisms to rubber crumb using the analysis of heavy metal and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations. The obtained results refer to substantial concerns related to freshwater contamination specifically, since the increased concentrations of zinc (7 mg·L−1) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (58 mg·kg−1) inhibit the growth of freshwater organisms, Desmodesmus subspicatus, and Lemna minor in particular. The performed test with soil organisms points to substantial concerns associated with the mortality of earthworms as well. The acquired knowledge can be perceived as a roadmap to a consistent approach in the implementation of the circular economy, which brings with it a number of so far insufficiently described problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Fořt
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Klára Kobetičová
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
| | - Martin Böhm
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
| | - Jan Podlesný
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Veronika Jelínková
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Martina Vachtlová
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Filip Bureš
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Robert Černý
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
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24
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de Boer J, Llompart M, Massey R, Dinan W, Clapp R, Watterson A. Letter to the Editor of Risk Analysis on the de Vries et al. Article (2021) on the Role of the Media in Communicating About Risks Linked to Crumb Rubber. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2021; 41:2179-2182. [PMID: 35088443 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
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25
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Luo Z, Zhou X, Su Y, Wang H, Yu R, Zhou S, Xu EG, Xing B. Environmental occurrence, fate, impact, and potential solution of tire microplastics: Similarities and differences with tire wear particles. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 795:148902. [PMID: 34328941 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Tire microplastics (TMPs) are identified as one of the most abundant types of microplastics, which originate from rubber with intended or unintended release. While increasing knowledge about TMPs concentrates on tire wear particles (TWPs), TMPs from other potential sources like recycled tire crumb (RTC) and tire repair-polished debris (TRD) are much less understood. Excessive levels of TMPs and their additives have been fragmentarily reported in the environment. The accumulating environmental TMPs from different sources may directly or indirectly cause adverse impacts on the environment and human health. The objectives of this review are to (1) summarize the properties, abundance, and sources of TMPs in the environment; (2) analyze the environmental fates and behaviors of TMPs, including their roles in carrying abiotic and biotic co-contaminants; (3) evaluate the potential impacts of TMPs on terrestrial and aquatic organisms, as well as human; and (4) discuss the potential solutions to mitigate the TMP pollution. By collecting and analyzing the up-to-date literature, this review enhances our better understanding of the environmental occurrence, fates, impacts, and potential solutions of TMPs, and further highlights critical knowledge gaps and future research directions that require cooperative efforts of scientists, policymakers, and public educators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuanxi Luo
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China.
| | - Xinyi Zhou
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Yu Su
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Haiming Wang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Ruilian Yu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Shufeng Zhou
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Elvis Genbo Xu
- Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | - Baoshan Xing
- Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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