Pt-Fe ferrocenyl compounds with hydroxyquinoline ligands show selective cytotoxicity on highly proliferative cells

Exploring a series of multifunctional Mn(I) tricarbonyls as prospective agents against trypanosomatid parasites: a comparative study with the Re(I) analogues

Diseases caused by trypanosomatid parasites are among the most pressing neglected illnesses. Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, and visceral Leishmaniasis, caused by Leishmania infantum, have a severe health impact in developing countries. Searching for prospective metal-based drugs against these diseases, five multifunctional fac-[Mn(CO)3(CTZ)(NN)](PF6) compounds, including four new derivatives, were synthesized and thoroughly characterized, featuring NN polypyridyl derivatives and Clotrimazole (CTZ) as bioactive ligands. The biological behavior was compared with that previously reported for the Re analogues. Mn compounds showed EC50 values in the low micromolar range against the infective trypomastigote form of Trypanosoma cruzi and the promastigote form of Leishmania infantum and moderate selectivity indexes. While their potency against T. cruzi was comparable to the Re analogues, their selectivity was lower. Key physicochemical properties relevant to drug development were assessed: Mn(I) compounds showed lower stability in relevant tested media compared with their Re(I) counterparts and higher lipophilicity than the free ligands and the Re analogues. To gain insight into the potential mechanisms of action, the interaction with DNA and the effects on ergosterol biosynthesis in T. cruzi and L. infantum were investigated. Minimal DNA association (<1%) and moderate interaction with this target discarded DNA binding as the primary mechanism of action. In contrast, inhibition of lanosterol 14-α-demethylase (CYP51), key enzyme involved in the parasites' ergosterol biosynthetic pathway, was experimentally confirmed. Metallomic study revealed an uptake by T. cruzi of the most promising compound, fac-[Mn(CO)3(CTZ)(tmp)](PF6), more than twice that of the Re(I) analogue and preferential association to soluble proteins. Proteomic analysis of T. cruzi epimastigotes treated with the Mn(I) and Re(I) analogues showed no change in CYP51 abundance, suggesting that reduced ergosterol levels may arise from post-translational modifications of the enzyme. Raman confocal microscopy allowed us to detect effects of the most promising Mn compound in treated T. cruzi. Furthermore, the photoinduced CO release properties of both Mn and Re analogues were examined, searching for an additional and yet non-studied potential mechanism of action of metal-tricarbonyls in these trypanosomatid parasites. Collectively, the results highlight the potential of Mn(I) tricarbonyls as promising candidates for further drug development.

A critical analysis of the potential of iron heterobimetallic complexes in anticancer research

Due to their diverse chemical properties and high ability to interact with biological molecules and cellular processes, transition metal-based compounds have emerged as promising candidates for cancer therapy. Iron complexes are among them, however, there is a gap in the comprehensive analysis of heterometallic iron complexes in the anticancer field. This review aims to fill this gap by summarizing recent progress in the study of Fe(II) and Fe(III) heterobimetallic complexes for anticancer applications and to gather important insights and future perspectives, with special emphasis on their theranostic capabilities. Works published between 2014 and 2024 were considered in this critical survey, that covers a range of complex types, including ferrocene in bimetallic complexes with Pt, Pd, Au, Ag, Ru, Rh, Ir, Cu, Re, Sn and Co; organometallic Fe-complexes with Ru and Ag; photoactive metal complexes with Pt and Co; and magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents with Gd and Mn. Studies conducted to determine the modes of action are highlighted and suggest the involvement of the metal species in reactive oxygen species generation within cells, the impact on apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, and many others. By pursuing interdisciplinary research, innovative theranostic platforms with enhanced efficacy, specificity, and clinical relevance can be developed for cancer management.

Quantum Chemical and Biological Insights into Redox Activity of Metallacarborane Complexes in Cancer Cells

A relationship between the electronic properties of metal ions in metallacarboranes and their ability to modulate mitochondrial oxidase activity and membrane hyperpolarization in cancer cells was demonstrated. Quantum chemistry methods, including DFT and molecular dynamics simulations, were used to understand the oxidized and reduced forms of metallacarboranes and their intramolecular rotatory behavior. According to the low-spin assumption for metal ions, the intramolecular oscillations of cluster ligands in metallacarboranes are significantly influenced by the type of metal and correspond to the cellular uptake of these complexes in vitro. In particular, the low-spin iron compound may be a new xenogeneic booster of redox homeostasis in cancer cells resistant to cisplatin, which induces metabolic 'exhaustion' of cancer cells and their death.

Multifunctional Organometallic Compounds Active against Infective Trypanosomes: Ru(II) Ferrocenyl Derivatives with Two Different Bioactive Ligands

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT, sleeping sickness) and American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) are endemic zoonotic diseases caused by genomically related trypanosomatid protozoan parasites (Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi, respectively). Just a few old drugs are available for their treatment, with most of them sharing poor safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetic profiles. Only fexinidazole has been recently incorporated into the arsenal for the treatment of HAT. In this work, new multifunctional Ru(II) ferrocenyl compounds were rationally designed as potential agents against these pathogens by including in a single molecule 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene (dppf) and two bioactive bidentate ligands: pyridine-2-thiolato-1-oxide ligand (mpo) and polypyridyl ligands (NN). Three [Ru(mpo)(dppf)(NN)](PF6) compounds and their derivatives with chloride as a counterion were synthesized and fully characterized in solid state and solution. They showed in vitro activity on bloodstream T. brucei (EC50 = 31-160 nM) and on T. cruzi trypomastigotes (EC50 = 190-410 nM). Compounds showed the lowest EC50 values on T. brucei when compared to the whole set of metal-based compounds previously developed by us. In addition, several of the Ru compounds showed good selectivity toward the parasites, particularly against the highly proliferative bloodstream form of T. brucei. Interaction with DNA and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were ruled out as potential targets and modes of action of the Ru compounds. Biochemical assays and in silico analysis led to the insight that they are able to inhibit the NADH-dependent fumarate reductase from T. cruzi. One representative hit induced a mild oxidation of low molecular weight thiols in T. brucei. The compounds were stable for at least 72 h in two different media and more lipophilic than both bioactive ligands, mpo and NN. An initial assessment of the therapeutic efficacy of one of the most potent and selective candidates, [Ru(mpo)(dppf)(bipy)]Cl, was performed using a murine infection model of acute African trypanosomiasis. This hit compound lacks acute toxicity when applied to animals in the dose/regimen described, but was unable to control parasite proliferation in vivo, probably because of its rapid clearance or low biodistribution in the extracellular fluids. Future studies should investigate the pharmacokinetics of this compound in vivo and involve further research to gain deeper insight into the mechanism of action of the compounds.

Therapeutic Activity of a Topical Formulation Containing 8-Hydroxyquinoline for Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

Cutaneous leishmaniasis exhibits a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations; however, only a limited number of drugs are available and include Glucantime® and amphotericin B, which induce unacceptable side effects in patients, limiting their use. Thus, there is an urgent demand to develop a treatment for leishmaniasis. Recently, it was demonstrated that 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ) showed significant leishmanicidal effects in vitro and in vivo. Based on that, this work aimed to develop a topical formulation containing 8-HQ and assess its activity in experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. 8-HQ was formulated using a Beeler base at 1 and 2% and showed an emulsion size with a D50 of 25 and 51.3 µm, respectively, with a shear-thinning rheological behaviour. The creams were able to permeate artificial Strat-M membranes and excised porcine skin without causing any morphological changes in the porcine skin or murine skin tested. In BALB/c mice infected with L. (L.) amazonensis, topical treatment with creams containing 1 or 2% of 8-HQ was found to reduce the parasite burden and lesion size compared to infected controls with comparable efficacy to Glucantime® (50 mg/kg) administered at the site of the cutaneous lesion. In the histological section of the skin from infected controls, a diffuse inflammatory infiltrate with many heavily infected macrophages that were associated with areas of necrosis was observed. On the other hand, animals treated with both creams showed only moderate inflammatory infiltrate, characterised by few infected macrophages, while tissue necrosis was not observed. These histological characteristics in topically treated animals were associated with an increase in the amount of IFN-γ and a reduction in IL-4 levels. The topical use of 8-HQ was active in decreasing tissue parasitism and should therefore be considered an interesting alternative directed to the treatment of leishmaniasis, considering that this type of treatment is non-invasive, painless, and, importantly, does not require hospitalisation, improving patient compliance by allowing the treatment to be conducted.

New multifunctional Ru(II) organometallic compounds show activity against Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania infantum

Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) and leishmaniasis are prevalent zoonotic diseases caused by genomically related trypanosomatid protozoan parasites (Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania spp). Additionally, both are co-endemic in certain regions of the world. Only a small number of old drugs exist for their treatment, with most of them sharing poor safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetic profiles. In this work, new multifunctional Ru(II) ferrocenyl compounds were rationally designed as potential agents against these trypanosomatid parasites by including in a single molecule 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene (dppf) and two bioactive bidentate ligands: 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives (8HQs) and polypyridyl ligands (NN). Three [Ru(8HQs)(dppf)(NN)](PF₆) compounds were synthesized and fully characterized. They showed in vitro activity on bloodstream Trypanosoma brucei (IC₅₀ 140-310 nM) and on Leishmania infantum promastigotes (IC₅₀ 3.0-4.8 μM). The compounds showed good selectivity towards T. brucei in respect to J774 murine macrophages as mammalian cell model (SI 15-38). Changing hexafluorophosphate counterion by chloride led to a three-fold increase in activity on both parasites and to a two to three-fold increase in selectivity towards the pathogens. The compounds affect in vitro at least the targets of the individual bioactive moieties included in the new chemical entities: DNA and generation of ROS. The compounds are stable in solution and are more lipophilic than the free bioactive ligands. No clear correlation between lipophilicity, interaction with DNA or generation of ROS and activity was detected, which agrees with their overall similar anti-trypanosoma potency and selectivity. These compounds are promising candidates for further drug development.

Do bioactive 8-hydroxyquinolines oxidovanadium(IV) and (V) complexes inhibit the growth of M. smegmatis?

The antiproliferative effects of four series of V^IVO- and V^VO-based compounds containing 8-hydroxyquinoline ligands on the bacterium Mycolicibacterium smegmatis (M. smeg) were investigated. The effects on M. smeg were compared to the antiproliferative effects on the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), the causative agent for Chagas disease. In this study, we investigate the speciation of these compounds under physiological conditions as well as the antiproliferative effects on the bacterium M. smeg. We find that the complexes are more stable the less H₂O is present, and that the stability increases in lipid-like environments. Only one heteroleptic complex and two homoleptic complexes were found to show similar antiproliferative effects on M. smeg as reported for T. cruzi so the responses generally observed by M.smeg. is less than observed by the pathogen. In summary, we find that M. smeg is more sensitive to the detailed structure of the V-complex but overall these complexes are less effective against M. smeg compared to T. cruzi.

Tuning the Biological Activity of Camphorimine Complexes through Metal Selection

The cytotoxic activity of four sets of camphorimine complexes based on the Cu(I), Cu(II), Ag(I), and Au(I) metal sites were assessed against the cisplatin-sensitive A2780 and OVCAR3 ovarian cancer cells. The results showed that the gold complexes were ca. one order of magnitude more active than the silver complexes, which in turn were ca. one order of magnitude more active than the copper complexes. An important finding was that the cytotoxic activity of the Ag(I) and Au(I) camphorimine complexes was higher than that of cisplatin. Another relevant aspect was that the camphorimine complexes did not interact significantly with DNA, in contrast with cisplatin. The cytotoxic activity of the camphorimine complexes displayed a direct relationship with the cellular uptake by OVCAR3 cells, as ascertained by PIXE (particle-induced X-ray emission). The levels of ROS (reactive oxygen species) formation exhibited an inverse relationship with the reduction potentials for the complexes with the same metal, as assessed by cyclic voltammetry. In order to gain insight into the toxicity of the complexes, their cytotoxicity toward nontumoral cells (HDF and V79 fibroblasts) was evaluated. The in vivo cytotoxicity of complex 5 using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was also assessed. The silver camphorimine complexes displayed the highest selectivity coefficients (activity vs. toxicity).

Dose Rate Effects on the Selective Radiosensitization of Prostate Cells by GRPR-Targeted Gold Nanoparticles

For a while, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been recognized as potential radiosensitizers in cancer radiation therapy, mainly due to their physical properties, making them appealing for medical applications. Nevertheless, the performance of AuNPs as radiosensitizers still raises important questions that need further investigation. Searching for selective prostate (PCa) radiosensitizing agents, we studied the radiosensitization capability of the target-specific AuNP-BBN in cancer versus non-cancerous prostate cells, including the evaluation of dose rate effects in comparison with non-targeted counterparts (AuNP-TDOTA). PCa cells were found to exhibit increased AuNP uptake when compared to non-tumoral ones, leading to a significant loss of cellular proliferation ability and complex DNA damage, evidenced by the occurrence of multiple micronucleus per binucleated cell, in the case of PC3 cells irradiated with 2 Gy of γ-rays, after incubation with AuNP-BBN. Remarkably, the treatment of the PC3 cells with AuNP-BBN led to a much stronger influence of the dose rate on the cellular survival upon γ-photon irradiation, as well as on their genomic instability. Overall, AuNP-BBN emerged in this study as a very promising nanotool for the efficient and selective radiosensitization of human prostate cancer PC3 cells, therefore deserving further preclinical evaluation in adequate animal models for prostate cancer radiotherapy.

Facing Diseases Caused by Trypanosomatid Parasites: Rational Design of Pd and Pt Complexes With Bioactive Ligands

Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), Chagas disease or American Trypanosomiasis (CD), and leishmaniases are protozoan infections produced by trypanosomatid parasites belonging to the kinetoplastid order and they constitute an urgent global health problem. In fact, there is an urgent need of more efficient and less toxic chemotherapy for these diseases. Medicinal inorganic chemistry currently offers an attractive option for the rational design of new drugs and, in particular, antiparasitic ones. In this sense, one of the main strategies for the design of metal-based antiparasitic compounds has been the coordination of an organic ligand with known or potential biological activity, to a metal centre or an organometallic core. Classical metal coordination complexes or organometallic compounds could be designed as multifunctional agents joining, in a single molecule, different chemical species that could affect different parasitic targets. This review is focused on the rational design of palladium(II) and platinum(II) compounds with bioactive ligands as prospective drugs against trypanosomatid parasites that has been conducted by our group during the last 20 years.

When ferrocene and diiron organometallics meet: triiron vinyliminium complexes exhibit strong cytotoxicity and cancer cell selectivity

Robust and versatile cationic triiron complexes, obtained from the assembly of ferrocenyl with a di-organoiron structure, display an outstanding cytotoxicity profile, which may be related to redox processes provided by the two metallic components.

Has Ferrocene Really Delivered Its Role in Accentuating the Bioactivity of Organic Scaffolds?

Ferrocene is an important structural core in bioorganometallic chemistry because of its inherent stability, excellent redox properties, and low toxicity. Ferroquine and ferrocifen are two of the most notable contributions of ferrocene to medicinal chemistry with remarkable antimalarial and anticancer properties. The improved medicinal properties of these drug candidates highlight the impact that ferrocene can have on the molecular and biological properties of the bioactive compounds. In this Perspective, we investigate the scope and limitations of ferrocene incorporation into organic compounds/natural products on their mode of action and biological activities. We have also discussed the detailed role of ferrocene modifications in influencing the anticancer, antimalarial, and antimicrobial properties of various bioactive moieties to design safer and promising ferrocene-based drugs.

Heteroleptic Oxidovanadium(V) Complexes with Activity against Infective and Non-Infective Stages of Trypanosoma cruzi

Five heteroleptic compounds, [VVO(IN-2H)(L-H)], where L are 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives and IN is a Schiff base ligand, were synthesized and characterized in both the solid and solution state. The compounds were evaluated on epimastigotes and trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi as well as on VERO cells, as a mammalian cell model. Compounds showed activity against trypomastigotes with IC50 values of 0.29-3.02 μM. IN ligand and the new [VVO2(IN-H)] complex showed negligible activity. The most active compound [VVO(IN-2H)(L2-H)], with L2 = 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline, showed good selectivity towards the parasite and was selected to carry out further biological studies. Stability studies suggested a partial decomposition in solution. [VVO(IN-2H)(L2-H)] affects the infection potential of cell-derived trypomastigotes. Low total vanadium uptake by parasites and preferential accumulation in the soluble proteins fraction were determined. A trypanocide effect was observed when incubating epimastigotes with 10 × IC50 values of [VVO(IN-2H)(L2-H)] and the generation of ROS after treatments was suggested. Fluorescence competition measurements with DNA:ethidium bromide adduct showed a moderate DNA interaction of the complexes. In vivo toxicity study on C. elegans model showed no toxicity up to a 100 μM concentration of [VVO(IN-2H)(L2-H)]. This compound could be considered a prospective anti-T. cruzi agent that deserves further research.

New Pd-Fe ferrocenyl antiparasitic compounds with bioactive 8-hydroxyquinoline ligands: a comparative study with their Pt-Fe analogues

In the search for a more effective chemotherapy for the treatment of Human African Trypanosomiasis, a disease caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei, the development of ferrocenyl compounds has arisen as a promising strategy. In this work, five new Pd-Fe heterobimetallic [PdII(L)(dppf)](PF6) compounds, including 8-hydroxyquinolyl derivatives HL1-HL5 as bioactive ligands and dppf = 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene as the organometallic co-ligand, were synthesized and fully characterized in the solid state and in solution. Molecular structures of three compounds were solved by single crystal X-ray diffraction methods. The compounds displayed submicromolar or micromolar IC50 values against bloodstream T. brucei (IC50: 0.33-1.2 μM), and good selectivity towards the pathogen (SI: 4-102) with respect to mammalian macrophages (cell line J774). The new Pd complexes proved to be 2-fold to 45-fold more potent than the drug nifurtimox but most of them are less active than their Pt analogues. Potential molecular targets were studied. The complexes interact with DNA but they do not alter the intracellular thiol-redox homeostasis of the parasite. In order to understand and predict the main structural determinants on the anti-T. brucei activity, a search of quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) was performed including all the [M(L)(dppf)](PF6) complexes, where M = Pd(ii) or Pt(ii), currently and previously developed by us. The correlation obtained shows the relevance of the electronic effects, the lipophilicity and the type of metal. According to the QSAR study, compounds with electron-withdrawing ligands, higher lipophilicity and harboring Pt would result in higher T. brucei cytotoxicity. From the whole series of [M(L)(dppf)](PF6) compounds developed, where M = Pt(ii) or Pd(ii) and HL = 8-hydroxyquinolyl derivatives, Pt-dppf-L4 (IC50 = 0.14 μM, SI = 48) was selected to perform an exploratory pre-clinical study in infected mice. This hit compound lacks acute toxicity when applied to animals in the dose/regimen described and exerts an anti-proliferative effect on parasites, which extends animal survival but is not curative.

Insights of 8-hydroxyquinolines: A novel target in medicinal chemistry

8-Hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ) is a significant heterocyclic scaffold in organic and analytical chemistry because of the properties of chromophore and is used to detect various metal ions and anions. But from the last 2 decades, this moiety has been drawn great attention of medicinal chemists due to its significant biological activities. Synthetic modification of 8-hydroxyquinoline is under exploration on large scale to develop more potent target-based broad spectrum drug molecules for the treatment of several life-threatening diseases such as anti-cancer, HIV, neurodegenerative disorders, etc. Metal chelation properties of 8-hydroxyquinoline and its derivatives also make these potent drug candidates for the treatment of various diseases. This review comprises 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives reported in the literature in last five years (2016-2020) and we anticipate that it will assist medicinal chemists in the synthesis of novel and pharmacologically potent agents for various therapeutic targets, mainly anti-proliferative, anti-microbial, anti-fungal and anti-viral as well as for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.

Quinolines, a perpetual, multipurpose scaffold in medicinal chemistry

Quinoline is a versatile pharmacophore, a privileged scaffold and an outstanding fused heterocyclic compound with a wide range of pharmacological prospective such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral drug and superlative moiety in drug discovery. The quinoline hybrids have already been shown excellent results with new targets with a different mode of actions as an inhibitor of cell proliferation by cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, angiogenesis, disruption of cell migration and modulation. This review emphasized the mode of action, structure activity relationship and molecular docking to reveal the various active pharmacophores of quinoline hybrids accountable for novel anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and miscellaneous activities. Therefore, several quinoline candidates are under clinical trials for the treatment of certain diseases, for example ferroquine (antimalarial), dactolisib (antitumor) and pelitinib (EGFR TK inhibitors) etc. Plenty of research has been summarized the recent advances of quinoline derivatives and explore the various therapeutic prospects of this moiety. This review would help the researchers to strategically design diverse novel quinoline derivatives for the development of clinically viable drug candidates for the treatment of incurable diseases.

Ferrocene-containing hybrids as potential anticancer agents: Current developments, mechanisms of action and structure-activity relationships

Cancer is one of the most fatal threatens to human health throughout the world. The major challenges in the control and eradication of cancers are the continuous emergency of drug-resistant cancer and the low specificity of anticancer agents, creating an urgent need to develop novel anticancer agents. Organometallic compounds especially ferrocene derivatives possess remarkable structural and mechanistic diversity, inherent stability towards air, heat and light, low toxicity, low cost, reversible redox, ligand exchange, and catalytic properties, making them promising drug candidates for cancer therapy. Ferrocifen, a ferrocene-phenol hybrid, has demonstrated promising anticancer properties on drug-resistant cancers. Currently, Ferrocifen is in pre-clinical trial against cancers. Obviously, ferrocene moiety is a useful template for the development of novel anticancer agents. This review will provide an overview of ferrocene-containing hybrids with potential application in the treatment of cancers covering articles published between 2010 and 2020. The mechanisms of action, the critical aspects of design and structure-activity relationships are also discussed.