Regulation of hypopharyngeal gland activity and oogenesis in honey bee (Apis mellifera) workers

Seasonal Changes in Hemolymph Protein Level and Hypopharyngeal Gland Size Depending on Age and In-Nest Location of Honeybee Workers

A honeybee colony, as a super-organism, is regulated through age-polyethism. A honeybee worker's age is considered by means of a chronological and biological approach. The biological age is estimated with physiologically related biological markers, e.g., total hemolymph protein content (THP) and hypopharyngeal gland size (HGs), which also vary seasonally. Contemporary insights into the age-related spatial workers' distribution within the hive nest space regarding biological age are insufficiently clarified. This study aimed to monitor changes in selected physiological markers during the entire season in relation to worker age and their spatial position in the hive nest. THP content and HG size analysis was performed in nine colonies for the entire season to compare the physiological markers within and among the groups of the workers whose ages were known and sampled in different hive parts. Seasonal impact on the biomarkers' development was confirmed in known-age workers. In the case of HGs, this impact was the most apparent in 4- and 5-week-old workers. For THP, the seasonal impact was the most obvious in 2-week-old workers. The highest THP was found in 1- and 2-week-old workers during the entire season. Biologically younger workers of the same age were located predominantly in upper hive parts consistently throughout the year and vice versa. These workers showed significantly higher THP in comparison with those sampled below. Regarding the chronological age, the downwards, spatially shifting mechanism of workers within the hive nest while they aged was characterized. We recommend storage of diluted hemolymph samples up to one month before performing an assay if necessary. The physiological context, relation to division of labor and benefits for beekeeping practices are discussed.

Lipidomic specializations of honeybee (Apis mellifera) castes and ethotypes

Honeybees of the same colony combine a near-homogeneous genetic background with a high level of phenotypic plasticity, making them ideal models for functional lipidomics. The only external lipid source of the colony is pollen, a diet rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). It has been suggested that differences in exposure to pollen-derived PUFA could partly explain differences in longevity between honeybee castes. We here investigated whether the membrane composition of honeybees plays roles in the physiological adaptation to tasks of individuals within the colony. Membranes of cell heaters, a group of workers producing heat from their flight muscles to uphold brood nest temperature, were compared to those of different types of non-heaters. We found that the lipidomic profiles of these groups fall into clearly different "lipotypes", characterized by chain length and saturation of phospholipid-bound fatty acyl residues. The nutritional exposure to PUFA during early adult life and pupal development at the lower edge of the natural range of brood nest temperature both suppressed the expression of the cell heater-"lipotype". Because cardiolipins (CL) are the lipid class most clearly differentiating honeybee phenotypes, and CL plays central roles in mitochondrial function, dysfunction and aging, our findings could help to understand these processes in other animals and humans. Taken together, the lipidome analysis of different life stages of workers, fertile queens, and drones lead to the hypothesis that honeybee "lipotypes" might represent adaptations to different energetic profiles and the likelihood of exposure to low temperatures.

Evaluation and comparison of the effects of three insect growth regulators on honey bee queen oviposition and egg eclosion

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are highly valued pollinators that help to ensure national food security in the United States, but reports of heavy annual losses to managed colonies have caused concerns and prompted investigations into the causes of colony losses. One factor that can negatively affect honey bee health and survival is agrochemical exposure. Investigations into the sublethal effects of agrochemicals on important metrics of colony health such as reproduction and queen fecundity has been limited by the availability of targeted methods to study honey bee queens. This work investigates the effects of three insect growth regulators (IGR), a class of agrochemicals known to target pathways involved in insect reproduction, on honey bee queen oviposition, egg hatching, and worker hypopharyngeal development in order to quantify their effects on the fecundity of mated queens. The reported results demonstrate that none of the IGRs affected oviposition, but all three affected egg eclosion. Worker bees consuming methoxyfenozide had significantly larger hypopharyngeal glands at two weeks of age than bees not fed this compound. The results suggest that although IGRs may not exhibit direct toxic effects on adult honey bees, they can affect larval eclosion from eggs and the physiology of workers, which may contribute to colony population declines over time.

Pollen reverses decreased lifespan, altered nutritional metabolism, and suppressed immunity in honey bees (Apis mellifera) treated with antibiotics

Nutrition is involved in regulating multiple aspects of honeybee biology such as caste, immunity, lifespan, growth and behavioral development. Deformed wing virus (DWV) is a major pathogenic factor which threatens honeybee populations, and its replication is regulated by nutrition status and immune responses of honeybees. The alimentary canal of the honeybee is home to a diverse microbial community that provides essential nutrients and serves to bolster immune responses. However, to what extent gut bacteria affect honeybee nutrition metabolism and immunity with respect to DWV has not been investigated fully. In this study, newly emerged worker bees were subjected to four diets that contained 1) pollen, 2) pollen and antibiotics, 3) neither pollen nor antibiotics, 4) antibiotics alone. The expression level of two nutrition genes target of rapamycin (tor) and insulin like peptide (ilp1), one nutritional marker gene vitellogenin (vg), five major royal jelly proteins genes (mrjp1-5), one antimicrobial peptide regulating gene relish (rel), and DWV virus titer and its replication intermediate, negative RNA strand, were determined by qRT-PCR from the honeybees after 7 days post antibiotic treatment. Additionally, honeybee head weight and survival rate were measured. We observed that antibiotics decreased the expression of tor and rel, increased DWV titer and its replication activity. Expression of ilp1, five mrjps, vg, and honeybee head weight were also reduced compared to bees on a pollen diet. Antibiotics also caused a significant drop in survivorship, which could be rescued by addition of pollen to diets. Of importance, pollen could partially rescue the loss of vg and mrjp2 while also increasing head weight of antibiotic-treated bees. Our results illuminate the roles of bacteria in honeybee nutrition, metabolism, and immunity; which confer the capability of inhibiting virus replication, extending honeybee lifespan, and improving overall health.

Differences in the morphology, physiology and gene expression of honey bee queens and workers reared in vitro versus in situ

The effect of larval nutrition on female fertility in honey bees is a focus for both scientific studies and for practical applications in beekeeping. In general, morphological traits are standards for classifying queens and workers and for evaluating their quality. In recent years, in vitro rearing techniques have been improved and used in many studies; they can produce queen-like and worker-like bees. Here, we questioned whether queens and workers reared in vitro are the same as queens and workers reared in a natural hive environment. We reared workers and queens both in vitro and naturally in beehives to test how these different environments affect metabolic physiology and candidate genes in newly emerged queens and workers. We found that sugar (glucose and trehalose) levels differed between queens and workers in both in vitro and in-hive-reared bees. The in vitro-reared bees had significantly higher levels of lipids in the abdomen. Moreover, hive reared queens had almost 20 times higher levels of vitellogenin than in vitro-reared queens, despite similar morphologies. In addition, hive-reared bees had significantly higher levels of expression of mrjp1 In conclusion, in vitro rearing produces queens and workers that differ from those reared in the hive environment at physiological and gene expression levels.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Honeybee rebel workers invest less in risky foraging than normal workers

In eusocial insect colonies, workers have individual preferences for performing particular tasks. Previous research suggests that these preferences might be associated with worker reproductive potential; however, different studies have yielded inconsistent results. This study constitutes the first comparison of foraging preferences between genetically similar normal and rebel honeybee workers, which present different reproductive potential. We found that rebels, which have a higher reproductive potential than normal workers, displayed a delayed onset of foraging and a stronger tendency to collect nectar compared with normal workers. These results support the hypothesis that workers with high reproductive potential invest more in their own egg laying and avoid risky tasks such as foraging. In contrast, the results do not support the hypothesis that reproductive workers initiate foraging earlier in life than normal workers and specialize in pollen foraging.

The transcriptomic changes associated with the development of social parasitism in the honeybee Apis mellifera capensis

Social insects are characterized by the division of labor. Queens usually dominate reproduction, whereas workers fulfill non-reproductive age-dependent tasks to maintain the colony. Although workers are typically sterile, they can activate their ovaries to produce their own offspring. In the extreme, worker reproduction can turn into social parasitism as in Apis mellifera capensis. These intraspecific parasites occupy a host colony, kill the resident queen, and take over the reproductive monopoly. Because they exhibit a queenlike behavior and are also treated like queens by the fellow workers, they are so-called pseudoqueens. Here, we compare the development of parasitic pseudoqueens and social workers at different time points using fat body transcriptome data. Two complementary analysis methods-a principal component analysis and a time course analysis-led to the identification of a core set of genes involved in the transition from a social worker into a highly fecund parasitic pseudoqueen. Comparing our results on pseudoqueens with gene expression data of honeybee queens revealed many similarities. In addition, there was a set of specific transcriptomic changes in the parasitic pseudoqueens that differed from both, queens and social workers, which may be typical for the development of the social parasitism in A. m. capensis.

Longevity extension of worker honey bees (Apis mellifera) by royal jelly: optimal dose and active ingredient

In the Western honey bee, Apis mellifera, queens and workers have different longevity although they share the same genome. Queens consume royal jelly (RJ) as the main food throughout their life, including as adults, but workers only eat worker jelly when they are larvae less than 3 days old. In order to explore the effect of RJ and the components affecting longevity of worker honey bees, we first determined the optimal dose for prolonging longevity of workers as 4% RJ in 50% sucrose solution, and developed a method of obtaining long lived workers. We then compared the effects of longevity extension by RJ 4% with bee-collected pollen from rapeseed (Brassica napus). Lastly, we determined that a water soluble RJ protein obtained by precipitation with 60% ammonium sulfate (RJP₆₀) contained the main component for longevity extension after comparing the effects of RJ crude protein extract (RJCP), RJP₃₀ (obtained by precipitation with 30% ammonium sulfate), and RJ ethanol extract (RJEE). Understanding what regulates worker longevity has potential to help increase colony productivity and improve crop pollination efficiency.

Identification of Multiple Loci Associated with Social Parasitism in Honeybees

In colonies of the honeybee Apis mellifera, the queen is usually the only reproductive female, which produces new females (queens and workers) by laying fertilized eggs. However, in one subspecies of A. mellifera, known as the Cape bee (A. m. capensis), worker bees reproduce asexually by thelytoky, an abnormal form of meiosis where two daughter nucleii fuse to form single diploid eggs, which develop into females without being fertilized. The Cape bee also exhibits a suite of phenotypes that facilitate social parasitism whereby workers lay such eggs in foreign colonies so their offspring can exploit their resources. The genetic basis of this switch to social parasitism in the Cape bee is unknown. To address this, we compared genome variation in a sample of Cape bees with other African populations. We find genetic divergence between these populations to be very low on average but identify several regions of the genome with extreme differentiation. The regions are strongly enriched for signals of selection in Cape bees, indicating that increased levels of positive selection have produced the unique set of derived phenotypic traits in this subspecies. Genetic variation within these regions allows unambiguous genetic identification of Cape bees and likely underlies the genetic basis of social parasitism. The candidate loci include genes involved in ecdysteroid signaling and juvenile hormone and dopamine biosynthesis, which may regulate worker ovary activation and others whose products localize at the centrosome and are implicated in chromosomal segregation during meiosis. Functional analysis of these loci will yield insights into the processes of reproduction and chemical signaling in both parasitic and non-parasitic populations and advance understanding of the process of normal and atypical meiosis.

Transcriptional, translational, and physiological signatures of undernourished honey bees (Apis mellifera) suggest a role for hormonal factors in hypopharyngeal gland degradation

Honey bee colonies function as a superorganism, where facultatively sterile female workers perform various tasks that support the hive. Nurse workers undergo numerous anatomical and physiological changes in preparation for brood rearing, including the growth of hypopharyngeal glands (HGs). These glands produce the major protein fraction of a protein- and lipid-rich jelly used to sustain developing larvae. Pollen intake is positively correlated with HG growth, but growth in the first three days is similar regardless of diet, suggesting that initial growth is a pre-determined process while later HG development depends on nutrient availability during a critical window in early adulthood (>3 d). It is unclear whether the resultant size differences in nurse HG are simply due to growth arrest or active degradation of the tissue. To determine what processes cause such differences in HG size, we catalogued the differential expression of both gene transcripts and proteins in the HGs of 8 d old bees that were fed diets containing pollen or no pollen. 3438 genes and 367 proteins were differentially regulated due to nutrition. Of the genes and proteins differentially expressed, undernourished bees exhibited more gene and protein up-regulation compared to well-nourished bees, with the affected processes including salivary gland apoptosis, oogenesis, and hormone signaling. Protein secretion was virtually the only process up-regulated in well-nourished bees. Further assays demonstrated that inhibition of ultraspiracle, one component of the ecdysteroid receptor, in the fat body caused larger HGs. Undernourished bees also had higher acid phosphatase activity, a physiological marker of cell death, compared to well-nourished bees. These results support a connection between poor nutrition, hormonal signaling, and HG degradation.

Age at which larvae are orphaned determines their development into typical or rebel workers in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.)

In the honeybee, diploid larvae fed with royal jelly develop into reproductive queens, whereas larvae fed with royal jelly for three days only and subsequently with honey and pollen develop into facultatively sterile workers. A recent study showed that worker larvae fed in a queenless colony develop into another female polyphenic form: rebel workers. These rebel workers are more queenlike and have greater reproductive potential than normal workers. However, it was unclear whether larvae orphaned at any time during their feeding period can develop into rebels. To answer this question, the anatomical features of newly emerged workers reared in queenless conditions at different ages during the larval period were evaluated. Our results showed that larvae orphaned during the final four or more days of their feeding life develop into rebel workers with more ovarioles in their ovaries, smaller hypopharyngeal glands, and larger mandibular and Dufour’s glands compared with typical workers with low reproductive potential that were reared with a queen or orphaned at the third to last or a later day of feeding life.

Large-scale coding sequence change underlies the evolution of postdevelopmental novelty in honey bees

Whether coding or regulatory sequence change is more important to the evolution of phenotypic novelty is one of biology's major unresolved questions. The field of evo-devo has shown that in early development changes to regulatory regions are the dominant mode of genetic change, but whether this extends to the evolution of novel phenotypes in the adult organism is unclear. Here, we conduct ten RNA-Seq experiments across both novel and conserved tissues in the honey bee to determine to what extent postdevelopmental novelty is based on changes to the coding regions of genes. We make several discoveries. First, we show that with respect to novel physiological functions in the adult animal, positively selected tissue-specific genes of high expression underlie novelty by conferring specialized cellular functions. Such genes are often, but not always taxonomically restricted genes (TRGs). We further show that positively selected genes, whether TRGs or conserved genes, are the least connected genes within gene expression networks. Overall, this work suggests that the evo-devo paradigm is limited, and that the evolution of novelty, postdevelopment, follows additional rules. Specifically, evo-devo stresses that high network connectedness (repeated use of the same gene in many contexts) constrains coding sequence change as it would lead to negative pleiotropic effects. Here, we show that in the adult animal, the converse is true: Genes with low network connectedness (TRGs and tissue-specific conserved genes) underlie novel phenotypes by rapidly changing coding sequence to perform new-specialized functions.

Queen and young larval pheromones impact nursing and reproductive physiology of honey bee (Apis mellifera) workers

Several insect pheromones are multifunctional and have both releaser and primer effects. In honey bees (Apis mellifera), the queen mandibular pheromone (QMP) and e-beta-ocimene (eβ), emitted by young worker larvae, have such dual effects. There is increasing evidence that these multifunctional pheromones profoundly shape honey bee colony dynamics by influencing cooperative brood care, a fundamental aspect of eusocial insect behavior. Both QMP and eβ have been shown to affect worker physiology and behavior, but it has not yet been determined if these two key pheromones have interactive effects on hypopharyngeal gland (HPG) development, actively used in caring of larvae, and ovary activation, a component of worker reproductive physiology. Experimental results demonstrate that both QMP and eβ significantly suppress ovary activation compared to controls but that the larval pheromone is more effective than QMP. The underlying reproductive anatomy (total ovarioles) of workers influenced HPG development and ovary activation, so that worker bees with more ovarioles were less responsive to suppression of ovary activation by QMP. These bees were more likely to develop their HPG and have activated ovaries in the presence of eβ, providing additional links between nursing and reproductive physiology in support of the reproductive ground plan hypothesis.

The effects of dietary protein levels on the population growth, performance, and physiology of honey bee workers during early spring

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary protein levels on honey bee colonies, specifically the population growth, physiology, and longevity of honey bee workers during early spring. Diets containing four different levels of crude protein (25.0, 29.5, 34.0, or 38.5%) and pure pollen (control) were evaluated. Twenty-five colonies of honey bees with sister queens were used in the study. We compared the effects of the different bee diets by measuring population growth, emergent worker weight, midgut proteolytic enzyme activity, hypopharyngeal gland development, and survival. After 48 d, the cumulative number of workers produced by the colonies ranged from 22,420 to 29,519, providing a significant fit to a quadratic equation that predicts the maximum population growth when the diet contains 31.7% crude protein. Significantly greater emergent worker weight, midgut proteolytic enzyme activity, hypopharyngeal gland acini, and survival were observed in the colonies that were fed diets containing 34.0% crude protein compared with the other crude protein levels. Although higher emergent worker weight and survival were observed in the colonies that were fed the control diet, there were no significant differences between the control colonies and the colonies that were fed 34.0% crude protein. Based on these results, we concluded that a dietary crude protein content of 29.5-34.0% is recommended to maximize the reproduction rate of honey bee colonies in early spring.

The importance of tissue specificity for RNA-seq: highlighting the errors of composite structure extractions

Background

A composite biological structure, such as an insect head or abdomen, contains many internal structures with distinct functions. Composite structures are often used in RNA-seq studies, though it is unclear how expression of the same gene in different tissues and structures within the same structure affects the measurement (or even utility) of the resulting patterns of gene expression. Here we determine how complex composite tissue structure affects measures of gene expression using RNA-seq.

Results

We focus on two structures in the honey bee (the sting gland and digestive tract) both contained within one larger structure, the whole abdomen. For each of the three structures, we used RNA-seq to identify differentially expressed genes between two developmental stages, nurse bees and foragers. Based on RNA-seq for each structure-specific extraction, we found that RNA-seq with composite structures leads to many false negatives (genes strongly differentially expressed in particular structures which are not found to be differentially expressed within the composite structure). We also found a significant number of genes with one pattern of differential expression in the tissue-specific extraction, and the opposite in the composite extraction, suggesting multiple signals from such genes within the composite structure. We found these patterns for different classes of genes including transcription factors.

Conclusions

Many RNA-seq studies currently use composite extractions, and even whole insect extractions, when tissue and structure specific extractions are possible. This is due to the logistical difficultly of micro-dissection and unawareness of the potential errors associated with composite extractions. The present study suggests that RNA-seq studies of composite structures are prone to false negatives and difficult to interpret positive signals for genes with variable patterns of local expression. In general, our results suggest that RNA-seq on large composite structures should be avoided unless it is possible to demonstrate that the effects shown here do not exist for the genes of interest.

New insights into the roles of juvenile hormone and ecdysteroids in honey bee reproduction

In workers of the Western honeybee, Apis mellifera, juvenile hormone (JH) and ecdysteroids regulate many aspects of age polyphenism. Here we investigated whether these derived functions in workers have developed by an uncoupling of endocrine mechanisms in adult queens and workers, or whether parallels can be found between the roles of the two hormones in both castes. We looked at yolk protein metabolism as a process central to the physiology of both queens and workers, and at sperm storage as a feature of the queen alone. Queens of differing fertility status (virgin, virgin but CO2-treated, inseminated, freshly laying and 1-2 years-old) were compared regarding vitellogenin (Vg), JH and ecdysteroid-titers in their hemolymph, as well as ovarian yolk protein and spermathecal gland composition. Our results showed that hormone titres were unrelated to the composition of spermathecal glands. JH-concentrations in the hemolymph were low in the groups of queens characterized by yolk uptake into the ovaries, and high in pre-vitellogenic queens or animals that were forced to interrupt egg-laying by caging. Ecdysteroid-concentrations were higher in untreated virgins than after insemination or during egg-laying. They were not affected by the caging of queens. These patterns of hormone changes were parallel to those known from worker bees. Together, these findings suggest a conserved role for JH as repressor of vitellogenin uptake into tissues, and for ecdysteroids in preparing tissues for this process. An involvement of the two hormones in the regulation of sperm storage seems unlikely. Our results add to the view that JH and ecdysteroids act similarly on the yolk protein metabolism of both castes of A. mellifera. This may imply that it was the biochemical versatility of Vg rather than that of hormonal regulatory circuits that allowed for the functional separation of the two castes.

Regulation of behaviorally associated gene networks in worker honey bee ovaries

Several lines of evidence support genetic links between ovary size and division of labor in worker honey bees. However, it is largely unknown how ovaries influence behavior. To address this question, we first performed transcriptional profiling on worker ovaries from two genotypes that differ in social behavior and ovary size. Then, we contrasted the differentially expressed ovarian genes with six sets of available brain transcriptomes. Finally, we probed behavior-related candidate gene networks in wild-type ovaries of different sizes. We found differential expression in 2151 ovarian transcripts in these artificially selected honey bee strains, corresponding to approximately 20.3% of the predicted gene set of honey bees. Differences in gene expression overlapped significantly with changes in the brain transcriptomes. Differentially expressed genes were associated with neural signal transmission (tyramine receptor, TYR) and ecdysteroid signaling; two independently tested nuclear hormone receptors (HR46 and ftz-f1) were also significantly correlated with ovary size in wild-type bees. We suggest that the correspondence between ovary and brain transcriptomes identified here indicates systemic regulatory networks among hormones (juvenile hormone and ecdysteroids), pheromones (queen mandibular pheromone), reproductive organs and nervous tissues in worker honey bees. Furthermore, robust correlations between ovary size and neuraland endocrine response genes are consistent with the hypothesized roles of the ovaries in honey bee behavioral regulation.

Surgically increased ovarian mass in the honey bee confirms link between reproductive physiology and worker behavior

Honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) workers are essentially sterile females that are used to study how complex social behavior develops. Workers perform nest tasks, like nursing larvae, prior to field tasks, like foraging. Despite worker sterility, this behavioral progression correlates with ovary size: workers with larger ovaries (many ovary filaments) start foraging at younger ages on average. It is untested, however, whether the correlation confers a causal relationship between ovary size and behavioral development. Here, we successfully grafted supernumerary ovaries into worker bees to produce an artificial increase in the amount of ovary tissue. We next measured fat body mRNA levels for the yolk precursor gene vitellogenin, which influences honey bee behavioral development and can correlate with ovary size. Vitellogenin was equally expressed in surgical controls and bees with supernumerary ovaries, leading us to predict that these groups would be characterized by equal behavior. Contrary to our prediction, bees with supernumerary ovaries showed accelerated behavioral development compared to surgical controls, which behaved like reference bees that were not treated surgically. To explore this result we monitored fat body expression levels of a putative ecdysteroid-response gene, HR46, which is genetically linked to ovary size in workers. Our data establish that social insect worker behavior can be directly influenced by ovaries, and that HR46 expression changes with ovary size independent of vitellogenin.

Quantification of toxins in a Cry1Ac + CpTI cotton cultivar and its potential effects on the honey bee Apis mellifera L

Transgenic Cry1Ac + CpTI cotton (CCRI41) is increasingly planted throughout China. However, negative effects of this cultivar on the honey bee Apis mellifera L., the most important pollinator for cultivated ecosystem, remained poorly investigated. The objective of our study was to evaluate the potential side effects of transgenic Cry1Ac + CpTI pollen from cotton on young adult honey bees A. mellifera L. Two points emphasized the significance of our study: (1) A higher expression level of insecticidal protein Cry1Ac in pollen tissues was detected (when compared with previous reports). In particular, Cry1Ac protein was detected at 300 ± 4.52 ng g(-1) [part per billion (ppb)] in pollen collected in July, (2) Effects on chronic mortality and feeding behaviour in honey bees were evaluated using a no-choice dietary feeding protocol with treated pollen, which guarantee the highest exposure level to bees potentially occurring in natural conditions (worst case scenario). Tests were also conducted using imidacloprid-treated pollen at a concentration of 48 ppb as positive control for sublethal effect on feeding behaviour. Our results suggested that Cry1Ac + CpTI pollen carried no lethal risk for honey bees. However, during a 7-day oral exposure to the various treatments (transgenic, imidacloprid-treated and control), honey bee feeding behaviour was disturbed and bees consumed significantly less CCRI41 cotton pollen than in the control group in which bees were exposed to conventional cotton pollen. It may indicate an antifeedant effect of CCRI41 pollen on honey bees and thus bees may be at risk because of large areas are planted with transgenic Bt cotton in China. This is the first report suggesting a potential sublethal effect of CCRI41 cotton pollen on honey bees. The implications of the results are discussed in terms of risk assessment for bees as well as for directions of future work involving risk assessment of CCRI41 cotton.