Overcrowding of false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) leads to the isolation of five new Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus (CrleGV-SA) isolates

Advancing pathogen surveillance by nanopore sequencing and genotype characterization of Acheta domesticus densovirus in mass-reared house crickets

Rapid and reliable detection of pathogens is crucial to complement the growing industry of mass-reared insects, in order to safeguard the insect colonies from outbreak of diseases, which may cause significant economic loss. Current diagnostic methods are mainly based on conventional PCR and microscopic examination, requiring prior knowledge of disease symptoms and are limited to identifying known pathogens. Here, we present a rapid nanopore-based metagenomics approach for detecting entomopathogens from the European house cricket (Acheta domesticus). In this study, the Acheta domesticus densovirus (AdDV) was detected from diseased individuals using solely Nanopore sequencing. Virus reads and genome assemblies were obtained within twenty-four hours after sequencing. Subsequently, due to the length of the Nanopore reads, it was possible to reconstruct significantly large parts or even the entire AdDV genome to conduct studies for genotype identification. Variant analysis indicated the presence of three AdDV genotypes within the same house cricket population, with association to the vital status of the diseased crickets. This contrast provided compelling evidence for the existence of non-lethal AdDV genotypes. These findings demonstrated nanopore-based metagenomics sequencing as a powerful addition to the diagnostic tool kit for routine pathogen surveillance and diagnosis in the insect rearing industry.

The History of Baculovirology in Africa

Baculovirology has been studied on the African continent for the development of insect virus-based biopesticides and, to a much lesser extent, vaccine production and delivery, since the 1960s. In this review, we focus only on baculoviruses as biopesticides for agricultural pests in Africa. At least 11 species of baculovirus have been discovered or studied on the African continent, some with several distinct isolates, with the objective in most cases being the development of a biopesticide. These include the nucleopolyhedroviruses of Helicoverpa armigera, Cryptophlebia peltastica, Spodoptera exempta, Spodoptera frugiperda, Spodoptera littoralis, and Maruca vitrata, as well as the granuloviruses of Cydia pomonella, Plutella xylostella, Thaumatotibia (Cryptophlebia) leucotreta, Choristoneura occidentalis, and Phthorimaea operculella. Eleven different baculovirus-based biopesticides are recorded as being registered and commercially available on the African continent. Baculoviruses are recorded to have been isolated, researched, utilised in field trials, and/or commercially deployed as biopesticides in at least 13 different African countries. Baculovirus research is ongoing in Africa, and researchers are confident that further novel species and isolates will be discovered, to the benefit of environmentally responsible agricultural pest management, not only in Africa but also elsewhere.

Selection for and Analysis of UV-Resistant Cryptophlebia Leucotreta Granulovirus-SA as a Biopesticide for Thaumatotibia leucotreta

Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus-SA (CrleGV-SA) is used as a commercial biopesticide for the false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta, in citrus and other crops. The virus is sensitive to UV irradiation from sunlight, which reduces its efficacy as a biopesticide in the field. We selected a UV-resistant CrleGV-SA isolate, with more than a thousand-fold improved virulence compared to the wild-type isolate, measured by comparing LC50 values. CrleGV-SA purified from infected T. leucotreta larvae was exposed to UV irradiation under controlled laboratory conditions in a climate chamber mimicking field conditions. Five cycles of UV exposure, followed by propagating the virus that retained infectivity in vivo with re-exposure to UV, were conducted to isolate and select for UV-resistant virus. Serial dilution bioassays were conducted against neonates after each UV exposure cycle. The concentration-responses of the infectious UV-exposed virus populations were compared by probit analysis with those from previous cycles and from the original CrleGV-SA virus population. NGS sequences of CrleGV-SA samples from UV exposure cycle 1 and cycle 5 were compared with the GenBank CrleGV-SA sequence. Changes in the genomes of infective virus from cycles 1 and 5 generated SNPs thought to be responsible for establishing UV tolerance. Additional SNPs, detected only in the cycle 5 sequence, may enhance UV tolerance and improve the virulence of the UV-tolerant population.

Reads in a haystack: extracting complete mitogenome sequences hidden in baculovirus datasets

Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) is one of many economically important insect pests for which no complete mitogenome sequence is available. The complete mitochondrial sequences for this species and other key pests could assist in the development of novel molecular techniques, such as enabling the identification of population-specific markers which could assist in improved monitoring of populations. The objective of this study was to determine whether NGS datasets generated for entomopathogenic viruses contain reads originating from host mitochondrial DNA. A total of 28 NGS datasets generated for the baculovirus Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus (CrleGV) were analysed in this study. Three datasets contained sufficient reads providing adequate coverage for the assembly of complete mitogenomes. All 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNAs and both rRNAs present in the mitogenomes of other species within the Grapholitini tribe, were identified. Phylogenetic analysis of the mitogenomes at both an intrafamilial and interspecies level grouped the sequences within the Olethreutinae and T. leucotreta clades, respectively. Analysis of single nucleotide variations (SNVs) between each T. leucotreta sequence indicated up to 75 differences across the mitogenome. The methodology used in this study could be expanded to other baculovirus NGS datasets enabling the generation of novel lepidopteran mitogenome sequences.

Effects of Rearing Density on Developmental Traits of Two Different Biotypes of the Gypsy Moth, Lymantria Dispar L., from China and the USA

The life-history traits of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), have been observed to vary with larval population density, which can increase significantly during an outbreak of this pest. Laboratory studies on density-dependent variation in gypsy moth development have focused on single populations and were limited to comparing solitary larvae with groups of larvae reared at a single density. To evaluate how density-dependent impacts on development vary with different populations and subspecies of L. dispar, we compared the effects of rearing larvae of a European gypsy moth (L. dispar dispar L.) population from Connecticut, USA; and larvae of two populations of the Asian gypsy moth (L. dispar asiatica Vnukovskij) from Guizhou and Hebei provinces in China. Larvae were reared on an artificial diet at densities of one, three, five, seven, and nine larvae per 115 mL container, and the duration of larval development, percentage of surviving larvae, and the rates of pupation and emergence were measured at each density. A two-tailed response to density variation with values falling away on both sides from a peak or climbing from a base was observed for all three populations tested, with the most rapid larval development and the highest values of survival, pupation, and emergence observed at a density of five larvae/container. Although differences in larval development time, survival, pupation and emergence were observed among the different populations under the conditions of our study, our findings indicate that density-dependent effects on the development of different gypsy moth subspecies and populations follow the same trends.

Effects of a Covert Infection with Phthorimaea operculella granulovirus in Insect Populations of Phthorimaea operculella

Virus infections of insects can easily stay undetected, neither showing typical signs of a disease, nor being lethal. Such a stable and most of the time covert infection with Phthorimaea operculella granulovirus (PhopGV) was detected in a Phthorimaea operculella laboratory colony, which originated from Italy (Phop-IT). This covert virus (named PhopGV-R) was isolated, purified and characterized at the genetic level by full genome sequencing. Furthermore, the insect colony Phop-IT was used to study the crowding effect, double infection with other PhopGV isolates (CR3 and GR1), and co-infection exclusion. An infection with a second homologous virus (PhopGV-CR3) activated the covert virus, while a co-infection with another virus isolate (PhopGV-GR1) led to its suppression. This study shows that stable virus infections can be common for insect populations and have an impact on population dynamics because they can suppress or enable co-infection with another virus isolate of the same species.

Microbial control of phytophagous invertebrate pests in South Africa: Current status and future prospects

Invertebrate pests pose a significant threat to food security on the African continent. In response, South Africa has become one of the largest importers of chemical pesticides in sub-Saharan Africa, with several hundred active ingredients registered. To address the over-reliance on such chemicals, the South African Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) has eliminated or restricted several pesticides since the late 1970s. The recent launch of the South African National Bio-Economy Strategy and establishment of the South African Bioproducts Organisation (SABO), together with new guidelines for registration of biopesticides in 2015, also support this endeavour. Concurrently, entomopathogen-related research and bioproduct development has increased over the past decade. Currently, 31 products (seven manufactured locally) are registered under the Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act 36 of 1947. Commercially important microbes include Beauveria bassiana (Cordycipitaceae), Metarhizium anisopliae (Clavicipitaceae), Cydia pomonella granulovirus, Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus, Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus (Baculoviridae) and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki and B. thuringiensis subsp. aizawai (Bacillaceae). Both parasitic and entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) show potential for development as bioinsecticides with one commercial EPN product, based on Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Heterorhabditidae), registered under the Act. Rapid scientific progression, supported by a favourable legislative environment, should facilitate further advances in microbial control of phytophagous invertebrate pests in South Africa.

Genome Analysis and Genetic Stability of the Cryptophlebia leucotreta Granulovirus (CrleGV-SA) after 15 Years of Commercial Use as a Biopesticide

Thaumatotibia leucotreta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is an indigenous pest in southern Africa which attacks citrus fruits and other crops. To control T. leucotreta in South Africa, an integrated pest management (IPM) programme incorporating the baculovirus Cryptophlebialeucotreta granulovirus (CrleGV-SA) as a biopesticide has been implemented. This study investigated the genetic stability of a commercially produced CrleGV-SA product that has been applied in the field since 2000. Seven representative full-genome sequences of the CrleGV-SA isolate spanning a 15-year period were generated and compared with one another. Several open reading frames (ORFs) were identified to have acquired single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) during the 15-year period, with three patterns observed and referred to as "stable", "reversion", and "unstable switching". Three insertion events were also identified, two of which occurred within ORFs. Pairwise multiple alignments of these sequences showed an identity ranging from 99.98% to 99.99%. Concentration-response bioassays comparing samples of CrleGV-SA from 2000 and 2015 showed an increase in virulence toward neonate T. leucotreta larvae. The CrleGV-SA genome sequence generated from the 2015 sample was compared to the Cape Verde reference genome, CrleGV-CV3. Several fusion events were identified between ORFs within these genomes. These sequences shared 96.7% pairwise identity, confirming that CrleGV-SA is a genetically distinct isolate. The results of this study indicate that the genome of CrleGV-SA has remained stable over many years, with implications for its continued use as a biopesticide in the field. Furthermore, the study describes the first complete baculovirus genome to be sequenced with the MinION (Oxford Nanopore, Oxford, UK) platform and the first complete genome sequence of the South African CrleGV isolate.

Covert Infection of Insects by Baculoviruses

Baculoviruses (Baculoviridae) are occluded DNA viruses that are lethal pathogens of the larval stages of some lepidopterans, mosquitoes, and sawflies (phytophagous Hymenoptera). These viruses have been developed as biological insecticides for control of insect pests and as expression vectors in biotechnological applications. Natural and laboratory populations frequently harbor covert infections by baculoviruses, often at a prevalence exceeding 50%. Covert infection can comprise either non-productive latency or sublethal infection involving low level production of virus progeny. Latency in cell culture systems involves the expression of a small subset of viral genes. In contrast, covert infection in lepidopterans is associated with differential infection of cell types, modulation of virus gene expression and avoidance of immune system clearance. The molecular basis for covert infection may reside in the regulation of host-virus interactions through the action of microRNAs (miRNA). Initial findings suggest that insect nudiviruses and vertebrate herpesviruses may provide useful analogous models for exploring the mechanisms of covert infection by baculoviruses. These pathogens adopt mixed-mode transmission strategies that depend on the relative fitness gains that accrue through vertical and horizontal transmission. This facilitates virus persistence when opportunities for horizontal transmission are limited and ensures virus dispersal in migratory host species. However, when host survival is threatened by environmental or physiological stressors, latent or persistent infections can be activated to produce lethal disease, followed by horizontal transmission. Covert infection has also been implicated in population level effects on host-pathogen dynamics due to the reduced reproductive capacity of infected females. We conclude that covert infections provide many opportunities to examine the complexity of insect-virus pathosystems at the organismal level and to explore the evolutionary and ecological relationships of these pathogens with major crop and forest pests.

The Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus-10 years of commercial field use

In the last 15 years, extensive work on the Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus (CrleGV) has been conducted in South Africa, initially in the laboratory, but subsequently also in the field. This culminated in the registration of the first CrleGV-based biopesticide in 2004 (hence, the 10 years of commercial use in the field) and the second one three years later. Since 2000, more than 50 field trials have been conducted with CrleGV against the false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta, on citrus in South Africa. In a representative sample of 13 field trials reported over this period, efficacy (measured by reduction in larval infestation of fruit) ranged between 30% and 92%. Efficacy was shown to persist at a level of 70% for up to 17 weeks after application of CrleGV. This only occurred where the virus was applied in blocks rather than to single trees. The addition of molasses substantially and sometimes significantly enhanced efficacy. It was also established that CrleGV should not be applied at less than ~2 × 10¹³ OBs per ha in order to avoid compromised efficacy. As CrleGV-based products were shown to be at least as effective as chemical alternatives, persistent and compatible with natural enemies, their use is recommended within an integrated program for control of T. leucotreta on citrus and other crops.