The 40 kDa carboxy-terminal domain of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 forms catalytically competent homo- and heterodimers in the absence of DNA

Investigating Protein Binding with the Isothermal Ligand-induced Resolubilization Assay

Target engagement assays typically detect and quantify the direct physical interaction of a protein of interest and its ligand through stability changes upon ligand binding. Commonly used target engagement methods detect ligand-induced stability by subjecting samples to thermal or proteolytic stress. Here we describe a new variation to these approaches called Isothermal Ligand-induced Resolubilization Assay (ILIRA), which utilizes lyotropic solubility stress to measure ligand binding through changes in target protein solubility. We identified distinct buffer systems and salt concentrations that compromised protein solubility for four diverse proteins: dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), nucleoside diphosphate-linked moiety X motif 5 (NUDT5), poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase 1 (PARP1), and protein arginine N-methyltransferase 1 (PRMT1). Ligand-induced solubility rescue was demonstrated for these proteins, suggesting that ILIRA can be used as an additional target engagement technique. Differences in ligand-induced protein solubility were assessed by Coomassie blue staining for SDS-PAGE and dot blot, as well as by NanoOrange, Thioflavin T, and Proteostat fluorescence, thus offering flexibility for readout and assay throughput.

The BRCT domain of PARP1 binds intact DNA and mediates intrastrand transfer

PARP1 is a key player in the response to DNA damage and is the target of clinical inhibitors for the treatment of cancers. Binding of PARP1 to damaged DNA leads to activation wherein PARP1 uses NAD+ to add chains of poly(ADP-ribose) onto itself and other nuclear proteins. PARP1 also binds abundantly to intact DNA and chromatin, where it remains enzymatically inactive. We show that intact DNA makes contacts with the PARP1 BRCT domain, which was not previously recognized as a DNA-binding domain. This binding mode does not result in the concomitant reorganization and activation of the catalytic domain. We visualize the BRCT domain bound to nucleosomal DNA by cryogenic electron microscopy and identify a key motif conserved from ancestral BRCT domains for binding phosphates on DNA and phospho-peptides. Finally, we demonstrate that the DNA-binding properties of the BRCT domain contribute to the "monkey-bar mechanism" that mediates DNA transfer of PARP1.

Poly(ADP-Ribose)Polymerase (PARP) Inhibitors and Radiation Therapy

Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase-1 (PARP1) is a DNA repair enzyme highly expressed in the nuclei of mammalian cells, with a structure and function that have attracted interest since its discovery. PARP inhibitors, moreover, can be used to induce synthetic lethality in cells where the homologous recombination (HR) pathway is deficient. Several small molecule PARP inhibitors have been approved by the FDA for multiple cancers bearing this deficiency These PARP inhibitors also act as radiosensitizing agents by delaying single strand break (SSB) repair and causing subsequent double strand break (DSB) generation, a concept that has been leveraged in various preclinical models of combination therapy with PARP inhibitors and ionizing radiation. Researchers have determined the efficacy of various PARP inhibitors at sub-cytotoxic concentrations in radiosensitizing multiple human cancer cell lines to ionizing radiation. Furthermore, several groups have begun evaluating combination therapy strategies in mouse models of cancer, and a fluorescent imaging agent that allows for subcellular imaging in real time has been developed from a PARP inhibitor scaffold. Other PARP inhibitor scaffolds have been radiolabeled to create PET imaging agents, some of which have also entered clinical trials. Most recently, these highly targeted small molecules have been radiolabeled with therapeutic isotopes to create radiotherapeutics and radiotheranostics in cancers whose primary interventions are surgical resection and whole-body radiotherapy. In this review we discuss the utilization of these small molecules in combination therapies and in scaffolds for imaging agents, radiotherapeutics, and radiotheranostics. Development of these radiolabeled PARP inhibitors has presented promising results for new interventions in the fight against some of the most intractable cancers.

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation by PARP1: reaction mechanism and regulatory proteins

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) is posttranslational modification of proteins by linear or branched chains of ADP-ribose units, originating from NAD+. The central enzyme for PAR production in cells and the main target of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation during DNA damage is poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1). PARP1 ability to function as a catalytic and acceptor protein simultaneously made a considerable contribution to accumulation of contradictory data. This topic is directly related to other questions, such as the stoichiometry of PARP1 molecules in auto-modification reaction, direction of the chain growth during PAR elongation and functional coupling of PARP1 with PARylation targets. Besides DNA damage necessary for the folding of catalytically active PARP1, other mechanisms appear to be required for the relevant intensity and specificity of PARylation reaction. Indeed, in recent years, PARP research has been enriched by the discovery of novel PARP1 interaction partners modulating its enzymatic activity. Understanding the details of PARP1 catalytic mechanism and its regulation is especially important in light of PARP-targeted therapy and may significantly aid to PARP inhibitors drug design. In this review we summarize old and up-to-date literature to clarify several points concerning PARylation mechanism and discuss different ways for regulation of PAR synthesis by accessory proteins reported thus far.

Single-particle analysis of full-length human poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1

PolyADP-ribosylation (PARylation) is a posttranslational modification that is involved in the various cellular functions including DNA repair, genomic stability, and transcriptional regulation. PARylation is catalyzed by the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) family proteins, which mainly recognize damaged DNA and initiate repair processes. PARP inhibitors are expected to be novel anticancer drugs for breast and ovarian cancers having mutation in BRCA tumor suppressor genes. However the structure of intact (full-length) PARP is not yet known. We have produced and purified the full-length human PARP1 (h-PARP1), which is the major family member of PARPs, and analyzed it with single particle electron microscopy. The electron microscopic images and the reconstructed 3D density map revealed a dimeric configuration of the h-PARP1, in which two ring-shaped subunits are associated with two-fold symmetry. Although the PARP1 is hypothesized to form a dimer on damaged DNA, the quaternary structure of this protein is still controversial. The present result would provide the first structural evidence of the dimeric structure of PARP1.

PARP inhibitors for BRCA1/2-mutated and sporadic ovarian cancer: current practice and future directions

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors cause targeted tumour cell death in homologous recombination (HR)-deficient cancers, including BRCA-mutated tumours, by exploiting synthetic lethality. PARP inhibitors are being evaluated in late-stage clinical trials of ovarian cancer (OC). Recently, olaparib was the first PARP inhibitor approved in the European Union and United States for the treatment of advanced BRCA-mutated OC. This paper reviews the role of BRCA mutations for tumorigenesis and PARP inhibitor sensitivity, and summarises the clinical development of PARP inhibitors for the treatment of patients diagnosed with OC. Among the five key PARP inhibitors currently in clinical development, olaparib has undergone the most extensive clinical investigation. PARP inhibitors have demonstrated durable antitumour activity in BRCA-mutated advanced OC as a single agent in the treatment and maintenance setting, particularly in platinum-sensitive disease. PARP inhibitors are well tolerated; however, further careful assessment of moderate and late-onset toxicity is mandatory in the maintenance and adjuvant setting, respectively. PARP inhibitors are also being evaluated in combination with chemotherapeutic and novel targeted agents to potentiate antitumour activities. Current research is extending the use of PARP inhibitors beyond BRCA mutations to other sensitising molecular defects that result in HR-deficient cancer, and is defining an HR-deficiency signature. Trials are underway to determine whether such a signature will predict sensitivity to PARP inhibitors in women with sporadic OC.

Mitochondrial poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase: The Wizard of Oz at work

Among multiple members of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) family, PARP1 accounts for the majority of PARP activity in mammalian cells. Although PARP1 is predominantly localized to the nucleus, and its nuclear regulatory roles are most commonly studied and are the best characterized, several lines of data demonstrate that PARP1 is also present in the mitochondria, and suggest that mitochondrial PARP (mtPARP) plays an important role in the regulation of various cellular functions in health and disease. The goal of the current article is to review the experimental evidence for the mitochondrial localization of PARP1 and its intra-mitochondrial functions, with focus on cellular bioenergetics, mitochondrial DNA repair and mitochondrial dysfunction. In addition, we also propose a working model for the interaction of mitochondrial and nuclear PARP during oxidant-induced cell death. MtPARP is similar to the Wizard of Oz in the sense that it is enigmatic, it has been elusive for a long time and it remains difficult to be interrogated. mtPARP - at least in some cell types - works incessantly "behind the curtains" as an orchestrator of many important cellular functions.

Chain-terminating and clickable NAD⁺ analogues for labeling the target proteins of ADP-ribosyltransferases

ADP-ribosyltransferases (ARTs) use NAD(+) as a substrate and play important roles in numerous biological processes, such as the DNA damage response and cell cycle regulation, by transferring multiple ADP-ribose units onto target proteins to form poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) chains of variable sizes. Efforts to identify direct targets of PARylation, as well as the specific ADP-ribose acceptor sites, must all tackle the complexity of PAR. Herein, we report new NAD(+) analogues that are efficiently processed by wild-type ARTs and lead to chain termination owing to a lack of the required hydroxy group, thereby significantly reducing the complexity of the protein modification. Due to the presence of an alkyne group, these NAD(+) analogues allow subsequent manipulations by click chemistry for labeling with dyes or affinity markers. This study provides insight into the substrate scope of ARTs and might pave the way for the further developments of chemical tools for investigating PAR metabolism.

Differential localisation of PARP-1 N-terminal fragment in PARP-1(+/+) and PARP-1(-/-) murine cells

Human PARP family consists of 17 members of which PARP-1 is a prominent member and plays a key role in DNA repair pathways. It has an N-terminal DNA-binding domain (DBD) encompassing the nuclear localisation signal (NLS), central automodification domain and C-terminal catalytic domain. PARP-1 accounts for majority of poly-(ADP-ribose) polymer synthesis that upon binding to numerous proteins including PARP itself modulates their activity. Reduced PARP-1 activity in ageing human samples and its deficiency leading to telomere shortening has been reported. Hence for cell survival, maintenance of genomic integrity and longevity presence of intact PARP-1 in the nucleus is paramount. Although localisation of full-length and truncated PARP-1 in PARP-1 proficient cells is well documented, subcellular distribution of PARP-1 fragments in the absence of endogenous PARP-1 is not known. Here we report the differential localisation of PARP-1 N-terminal fragment encompassing NLS in PARP-1(+/+) and PARP-1(-/-) mouse embryo fibroblasts by live imaging of cells transiently expressing EGFP tagged fragment. In PARP-1(+/+) cells the fragment localises to the nuclei presenting a granular pattern. Furthermore, it is densely packaged in the midsections of the nucleus. In contrast, the fragment localises exclusively to the cytoplasm in PARP-1(-/-) cells. Flourescence intensity analysis further confirmed this observation indicating that the N-terminal fragment requires endogenous PARP-1 for its nuclear transport. Our study illustrates the trafficking role of PARP-1 independently of its enzymatic activity and highlights the possibility that full-length PARP-1 may play a key role in the nuclear transport of its siblings and other molecules.

The Elephant and the Blind Men: Making Sense of PARP Inhibitors in Homologous Recombination Deficient Tumor Cells

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) is an important component of the base excision repair (BER) pathway as well as a regulator of homologous recombination (HR) and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ). Previous studies have demonstrated that treatment of HR-deficient cells with PARP inhibitors results in stalled and collapsed replication forks. Consequently, HR-deficient cells are extremely sensitive to PARP inhibitors. Several explanations have been advanced to explain this so-called synthetic lethality between HR deficiency and PARP inhibition: (i) reduction of BER activity leading to enhanced DNA double-strand breaks, which accumulate in the absence of HR; (ii) trapping of inhibited PARP1 at sites of DNA damage, which prevents access of other repair proteins; (iii) failure to initiate HR by poly(ADP-ribose) polymer-dependent BRCA1 recruitment; and (iv) activation of the NHEJ pathway, which selectively induces error-prone repair in HR-deficient cells. Here we review evidence regarding these various explanations for the ability of PARP inhibitors to selectively kill HR-deficient cancer cells and discuss their potential implications.

PARP-3 is a mono-ADP-ribosylase that activates PARP-1 in the absence of DNA

The PARP-3 protein is closely related to the PARP-1 and PARP-2 proteins, which are involved in DNA repair and genome maintenance. Here, we characterized the biochemical properties of human PARP-3. PARP-3 is able to ADP-ribosylate itself as well as histone H1, a previously unknown substrate for PARP-3. PARP-3 is not activated upon binding to DNA and is a mono-ADP-ribosylase, in contrast to PARP-1 and PARP-2. PARP-3 interacts with PARP-1 and activates PARP-1 in the absence of DNA, resulting in synthesis of polymers of ADP-ribose. The N-terminal WGR domain of PARP-3 is involved in this activation. The functional interaction between PARP-3 and PARP-1 suggests that it may have a role in DNA repair. However, here we report that PARP-3 small interfering RNA-depleted cells are not sensitive to the topoisomerase I poison camptothecin, inducing DNA single-strand breaks, and repair these lesions as efficiently as wild-type cells. Altogether, these results suggest that the interaction between PARP-1 and PARP-3 is unrelated to DNA single-strand break repair.

Molecular mechanism of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation by PARP1 and identification of lysine residues as ADP-ribose acceptor sites

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) synthesizes poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) as a substrate. Despite intensive research on the cellular functions of PARP1, the molecular mechanism of PAR formation has not been comprehensively understood. In this study, we elucidate the molecular mechanisms of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation and identify PAR acceptor sites. Generation of different chimera proteins revealed that the amino-terminal domains of PARP1, PARP2 and PARP3 cooperate tightly with their corresponding catalytic domains. The DNA-dependent interaction between the amino-terminal DNA-binding domain and the catalytic domain of PARP1 increased V_max and decreased the K_m for NAD. Furthermore, we show that glutamic acid residues in the auto-modification domain of PARP1 are not required for PAR formation. Instead, we identify individual lysine residues as acceptor sites for ADP-ribosylation. Together, our findings provide novel mechanistic insights into PAR synthesis with significant relevance for the different biological functions of PARP family members.

Photoreceptor cell death mechanisms in inherited retinal degeneration

Photoreceptor cell death is the major hallmark of a group of human inherited retinal degenerations commonly referred to as retinitis pigmentosa (RP). Although the causative genetic mutations are often known, the mechanisms leading to photoreceptor degeneration remain poorly defined. Previous research work has focused on apoptosis, but recent evidence suggests that photoreceptor cell death may result primarily from non-apoptotic mechanisms independently of AP1 or p53 transcription factor activity, Bcl proteins, caspases, or cytochrome c release. This review briefly describes some animal models used for studies of retinal degeneration, with particular focus on the rd1 mouse. After outlining the major features of different cell death mechanisms in general, we then compare them with results obtained in retinal degeneration models, where photoreceptor cell death appears to be governed by, among other things, changes in cyclic nucleotide metabolism, downregulation of the transcription factor CREB, and excessive activation of calpain and PARP. Based on recent experimental evidence, we propose a putative non-apoptotic molecular pathway for photoreceptor cell death in the rd1 retina. The notion that inherited photoreceptor cell death is driven by non-apoptotic mechanisms may provide new ideas for future treatment of RP.

Dependence of trans-ADP-ribosylation and nuclear glycolysis on the Arg 34-ATP complex of Zn2+ finger I of poly-ADP-ribose polymerase-1

The H-bonded complex of ATP with Arg 34 of Zn2+ finger I of poly-ADP-ribose polymerase-1 (PARP-1) determines trans-oligo-ADP-ribosylation from NAD+ to proteins other than PARP-1. This mechanism was tested in lysolecithin fractions of non-malignant and cancer cells separately and after their recombination. Cellular PARP-1 activity was recovered when the centrifugal sediment was recombined with the supernatant fraction containing cellular ADP-ribose oligomer acceptor proteins. Combination of the matrix fraction (Mx) of cancer cells (lacking OXPHOS) with its supernatant had the same PARP-1 activity as the Mx alone. The supernatant of non-malignant cells was replaced by glycolytic enzymes as ADP-ribose acceptor. The hexokinase activity of the supernatant increased when OXPHOS of intact cells was uncoupled by carbonyl cyanide 4-(trifluoro methoxy) phenylhydrazone. trans-ADP-ribosylation was demonstrated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

Functional localization of two poly(ADP-ribose)-degrading enzymes to the mitochondrial matrix

Recent discoveries of NAD-mediated regulatory processes in mitochondria have documented important roles of this compartmentalized nucleotide pool in addition to energy transduction. Moreover, mitochondria respond to excessive nuclear NAD consumption arising from DNA damage-induced poly-ADP-ribosylation because poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) can trigger the release of apoptosis-inducing factor from the organelles. To functionally assess mitochondrial NAD metabolism, we overexpressed the catalytic domain of nuclear PAR polymerase 1 (PARP1) and targeted it to the matrix, which resulted in the constitutive presence of PAR within the organelles. As a result, stably transfected HEK293 cells exhibited a decrease in NAD content and typical features of respiratory deficiency. Remarkably, inhibiting PARP activity revealed PAR degradation within mitochondria. Two enzymes, PAR glycohydrolase (PARG) and ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (ARH3), are known to cleave PAR. Both full-length ARH3 and a PARG isoform, which arises from alternative splicing, localized to the mitochondrial matrix. This conclusion was based on the direct demonstration of their PAR-degrading activity within mitochondria of living cells. The visualization of catalytic activity establishes a new approach to identify submitochondrial localization of proteins involved in the metabolism of NAD derivatives. In addition, targeted PARP expression may serve as a compartment-specific "knock-down" of the NAD content which is readily detectable by PAR formation.

The DNA binding and catalytic domains of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 cooperate in the regulation of chromatin structure and transcription

We explored the mechanisms of chromatin compaction and transcriptional regulation by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1), a nucleosome-binding protein with an NAD(+)-dependent enzymatic activity. By using atomic force microscopy and a complementary set of biochemical assays with reconstituted chromatin, we showed that PARP-1 promotes the localized compaction of chromatin into supranucleosomal structures in a manner independent of the amino-terminal tails of core histones. In addition, we defined the domains of PARP-1 required for nucleosome binding, chromatin compaction, and transcriptional repression. Our results indicate that the DNA binding domain (DBD) of PARP-1 is necessary and sufficient for binding to nucleosomes, yet the DBD alone is unable to promote chromatin compaction and only partially represses RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription in an in vitro assay with chromatin templates (approximately 50% of the repression observed with wild-type PARP-1). Furthermore, our results show that the catalytic domain of PARP-1, which does not bind nucleosomes on its own, cooperates with the DBD to promote chromatin compaction and efficient transcriptional repression in a manner independent of its enzymatic activity. Collectively, our results have revealed a novel function for the catalytic domain in chromatin compaction. In addition, they show that the DBD and catalytic domain cooperate to regulate chromatin structure and chromatin-dependent transcription, providing mechanistic insights into how these domains contribute to the chromatin-dependent functions of PARP-1.

Binding mode of novel 1-substituted quinazoline derivatives to poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-catalytic domain, revealed by X-ray crystal structure analysis of complexes

In order to clarify the role of the 1-substituent of quinazoline derivatives in their inhibitory activity against poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), two novel inhibitors, 1 [8-hydroxy-1-(3-morpholinopropyl)-quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-dione] and 2 [8-hydroxy-1-(3-phenoxypropyl)-quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-dione], were synthesized and subjected to X-ray crystal analysis in complex with the PARP C-terminal catalytic domain (PARP-CD), which requires NAD+ coenzyme for biological function. The nicotinamide-mimicking part of the quinazoline skeleton of 1 and 2 were both located at the nicotinamide subsite of the NAD+-binding pocket in the same manner as previously reported inhibitors: three hydrogen bonds [(Gly-863)NH-O12, (Gly-863)O-HN3 and (Ser-904)O(gamma)-O12] and stacking interaction between the Tyr-907 phenol and the quinazoline ring. On the other hand, the N-morpholinoprop-3-yl moiety introduced at the 1-position of the quinazoline ring in 1 bridged the large gap between the donor site and the acceptor site through a (Met-890)NH-O20(morpholine) hydrogen bond, where the donor and the acceptor sites are classified as the binding sites of NAD+ and the ADP moiety of the poly(ADP-ribose) chain, respectively. In contrast, the N-phenoxyprop-3-yl moiety in 2 formed hydrophobic interactions close to the adenosine-binding site of NAD+, unlike the hydrogen bond such as in 1. As the inhibitory activities of 1 and 2 for PARP were much more potent than those of the unsubstituted nicotinamide analogues, these results suggest that the occupation of the proximal region of the ADP phosphate-and adenosine-binding subsite of the donor site or that of the gap between the donor and the acceptor site by the 1-substituent of quinazoline may increase the inhibitory activity considerably. The nearly equal inhibitory activities of 1 and 2, despite of their different binding modes at the active site, indicate that this 1-substituent is promising in improving the bioavailability of the inhibitor without compromising its inhibitory activity.

DNA-induced dimerization of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 triggers its activation

In response to DNA strand breaks in the genome of higher eukaryotes, poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase 1 (PARP-1) catalyses the covalent attachment of ADP-ribose units from NAD(+) to various nuclear acceptor proteins including PARP-1 itself. This post-translational modification affecting proteins involved in chromatin architecture and in DNA repair plays a critical role in cell survival as well as in caspase-independent cell death. Although PARP-1 has been best-studied for its role in genome stability, several recent reports have demonstrated its role in the regulation of transcription. In this study, fluorescence spectroscopy and biochemical techniques are used to investigate the association of the amino-terminal DNA-binding domain of human PARP-1 (hPARP-1 DBD) with various DNA substrates, characterized by different DNA ends and sequence features (5'- or 3'-recessed end, double strands, telomeric repeats, and the palindromic sequence of a Not I restriction site). The correlation between the binding mode of hPARP-1 DBD to the DNA oligoduplexes and the enzymatic activation of hPARP-1 is analyzed. We show that hPARP-1 DBD binds a 5'-recessed DNA end cooperatively with a stoichiometry of two proteins per DNA molecule. In contrast, a 1:1 stoichiometry is found in the presence of a 3'-recessed end and double-strand DNA. A palindromic structure like the Not I restriction site is shown to induce protein dimerization and high enzymatic activation, suggesting that it can represent a recognition element for hPARP-1 in undamaged cells. Protein dimerization is found to be a requisite for high enzymatic activity. Taken together, our data allow further characterization of the features of hPARP-1 recognition in damaged cells and bring additional evidence that hPARP-1 may also play a role in undamaged cells.

Down-modulation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) in human TUR leukemia cells restores transcriptional responsiveness for differentiation and cell cycle arrest

Aggressive tumor developing human TUR myeloid leukemia cells continued cell cycle progression in the presence of the differentiation-inducing phorbol ester 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). Similar results were obtained after stable transfection of TUR cells with the pTracer control vector (pTracer TUR cells). In contrast, TUR transfectants containing a constitutively active poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) gene fragment in antisense orientation within the pTracer vector (asPARP TUR cells) demonstrated increasing cell attachment and differentiation after TPA treatment. Moreover, asPARP TUR cells ceased to divide upon TPA stimulation. Cell cycle analysis revealed a predominant G0/G1 arrest and a partial G2/M arrest in TPA-treated asPARP TUR cells, whereas little if any population was detectable in S phase. Microarray gene expression analysis exhibited a significant down-regulation of cell cycle genes in phorbol ester-stimulated asPARP TUR and markedly elevated levels of differentiation-associated factors in contrast to TPA-incubated wild-type TUR cells. Whereas PARP-1 can associate with the 20S proteasome in leukemia cells, a significant reduction of this proteolytic activity was observed in asPARP TUR cells. Conversely, protein levels of manganese superoxide dismutase and the matrix metalloproteinases MMP-1 and MMP-9 were progressively increased in TPA-treated asPARP TUR cells, respectively. These findings underscore an important function of PARP-1 in human leukemia cells to connect cell cycle progression and control of differentiation.

Tankyrase polymerization is controlled by its sterile alpha motif and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase domains

Tankyrases are novel poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases that have SAM and ankyrin protein-interaction domains. They are found at telomeres, centrosomes, nuclear pores, and Golgi vesicles and have been shown to participate in telomere length regulation. Their other function(s) are unknown, and it has been difficult to envision a common role at such diverse cellular locations. We have shown that tankyrase 1 polymerizes through its sterile alpha motif (SAM) domain to assemble large protein complexes. In vitro polymerization is reversible and still allows interaction with ankyrin-domain binding proteins. Polymerization can also occur in vivo, with SAM-dependent association of overexpressed tankyrase leading to formation of large tankyrase-containing vesicles, disruption of Golgi structure, and inhibition of apical secretion. Finally, tankyrase polymers are dissociated efficiently by poly(ADP-ribosy)lation. This disassembly is prevented by mutation of the PARP domain. Our findings indicate that tankyrase 1 has the unique capacity to promote both assembly and disassembly of large protein complexes. Thus, tankyrases appear to be master scaffolding proteins that regulate the formation of dynamic protein networks at different cellular locations. This implies a common scaffolding function for tankyrases at each location, with specific tankyrase interaction partners conferring location-specific roles to each network, e.g., telomere compaction or regulation of vesicle trafficking.