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Rayan A, Agarwal A, Samanta A, Severijnen E, van der Meij J, Genzel L. Sleep scoring in rodents: Criteria, automatic approaches and outstanding issues. Eur J Neurosci 2024; 59:526-553. [PMID: 36479908 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is nothing we spend as much time on in our lives as we do sleeping, which makes it even more surprising that we currently do not know why we need to sleep. Most of the research addressing this question is performed in rodents to allow for invasive, mechanistic approaches. However, in contrast to human sleep, we currently do not have shared and agreed upon standards on sleep states in rodents. In this article, we present an overview on sleep stages in humans and rodents and a historical perspective on the development of automatic sleep scoring systems in rodents. Further, we highlight specific issues in rodent sleep that also call into question some of the standards used in human sleep research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelrahman Rayan
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Anjali Agarwal
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Anumita Samanta
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Eva Severijnen
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline van der Meij
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Lisa Genzel
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Silva-Pérez M, Sánchez-López A, Pompa-Del-Toro N, Escudero M. Identification of the sleep-wake states in rats using the high-frequency activity of the electroencephalogram. J Sleep Res 2020; 30:e13233. [PMID: 33200511 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.13233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The electroencephalographic signal constitutes the main sign classically used for the identification of states of alertness. However, activities in the high frequency (>100 Hz) range have not been properly studied despite their high potential for sleep scoring in rodents. In the present study, we designed a method for the identification of the sleep-wake states in rats by exclusively using high-frequency activities of the electroencephalogram. By calculating the ratio between the amplitude of the electroencephalographic signal from 110 to 200 Hz and from 110 to 300 Hz, we obtained an index that had values that were low during wakefulness, intermediate during non-REM sleep and high during REM sleep. This high-frequency index (HiFI) allowed the identification of each state without the need to study other signs such as muscle activity or eye movements. To evaluate the performance of the index, we compared it with the conventional scoring of the sleep-wake cycle based upon the study of the electromyogram and delta (0.5-4 Hz), theta (6-9 Hz) and sigma (10-14 Hz) bands of the electroencephalogram. The index had an accuracy of 90.43 ± 1.91% (Cohen's kappa value of 0.82), confirming that the study of the high-frequency activities of the electroencephalogram was sufficient to reliably identify alertness states in the rat. Compared to other sleep-scoring methods, the HiFI has several advantages. It only requires one electroencephalography electrode, thus reducing the severity of the surgical preparation of the experimental animal, and its calculation is very simple, so it can be easily implemented online to classify sleep-wake states in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Silva-Pérez
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Alvaro Sánchez-López
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain.,Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Miguel Escudero
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
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Ishikawa A, Sakai K, Maki T, Mizuno Y, Niimi K, Oda Y, Takahashi E. Investigation of sleep-wake rhythm in non-human primates without restraint during data collection. Exp Anim 2017; 66:51-60. [PMID: 27760892 PMCID: PMC5301001 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.16-0073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
To understand sleep mechanisms and develop treatments for sleep disorders, investigations using animal models are essential. The sleep architecture of rodents differs from that of diurnal mammals including humans and non-human primates. Sleep studies have been conducted in non-human primates; however, these sleep assessments were performed on animals placed in a restraint chair connected via the umbilical area to the recording apparatus. To avoid restraints, cables, and other stressful apparatuses and manipulations, telemetry systems have been developed. In the present study, sleep recordings in unrestrained cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) and common marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) were conducted to characterize normal sleep. For the analysis of sleep-wake rhythms in cynomolgus monkeys, telemetry electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), and electrooculography (EOG) signals were used. For the analysis of sleep-wake rhythms in marmosets, telemetry EEG and EOG signals were used. Both monkey species showed monophasic sleep patterns during the dark phase. Although non-rapid eye movement (NREM) deep sleep showed higher levels at the beginning of the dark phase in cynomolgus monkeys, NREM deep sleep rarely occurred during the dark phase in marmosets. Our results indicate that the use of telemetry in non-human primate models is useful for sleep studies, and that the different NREM deep sleep activities between cynomolgus monkeys and common marmoset monkeys are useful to examine sleep functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiyoshi Ishikawa
- Sleep Science Laboratories, HAMRI Co., Ltd., Ibaraki 306-0128, Japan
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Libourel PA, Corneyllie A, Luppi PH, Chouvet G, Gervasoni D. Unsupervised online classifier in sleep scoring for sleep deprivation studies. Sleep 2015; 38:815-28. [PMID: 25325478 PMCID: PMC4402670 DOI: 10.5665/sleep.4682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVE This study was designed to evaluate an unsupervised adaptive algorithm for real-time detection of sleep and wake states in rodents. DESIGN We designed a Bayesian classifier that automatically extracts electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) features and categorizes non-overlapping 5-s epochs into one of the three major sleep and wake states without any human supervision. This sleep-scoring algorithm is coupled online with a new device to perform selective paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD). SETTINGS Controlled laboratory settings for chronic polygraphic sleep recordings and selective PSD. PARTICIPANTS Ten adult Sprague-Dawley rats instrumented for chronic polysomnographic recordings. MEASUREMENTS The performance of the algorithm is evaluated by comparison with the score obtained by a human expert reader. Online detection of PS is then validated with a PSD protocol with duration of 72 hours. RESULTS Our algorithm gave a high concordance with human scoring with an average κ coefficient > 70%. Notably, the specificity to detect PS reached 92%. Selective PSD using real-time detection of PS strongly reduced PS amounts, leaving only brief PS bouts necessary for the detection of PS in EEG and EMG signals (4.7 ± 0.7% over 72 h, versus 8.9 ± 0.5% in baseline), and was followed by a significant PS rebound (23.3 ± 3.3% over 150 minutes). CONCLUSIONS Our fully unsupervised data-driven algorithm overcomes some limitations of the other automated methods such as the selection of representative descriptors or threshold settings. When used online and coupled with our sleep deprivation device, it represents a better option for selective PSD than other methods like the tedious gentle handling or the platform method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul-Antoine Libourel
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon (CRNL), Lyon, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Lyon, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Lyon, France
| | - Alexandra Corneyllie
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon (CRNL), Lyon, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Lyon, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Lyon, France
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées (INSA), Lyon, France
| | - Pierre-Hervé Luppi
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon (CRNL), Lyon, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Lyon, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Lyon, France
| | - Guy Chouvet
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon (CRNL), Lyon, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Lyon, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Lyon, France
| | - Damien Gervasoni
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon (CRNL), Lyon, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Lyon, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Lyon, France
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Fang G, Xia Y, Zhang C, Liu T, Yao D. Optimized single electroencephalogram channel sleep staging in rats. Lab Anim 2010; 44:312-22. [DOI: 10.1258/la.2010.009081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Most studies of sleep staging in rats use both multichannels electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG), so it would be convenient and meaningful in some fields if sleep staging in rats could be realized using a single EEG channel. In this study, we used a single bipolar cortical EEG electrode at the frontal–parietal location with a 0.5–30 Hz filter band and a clustering sleep-staging algorithm including seven classification parameters. The agreements between the computer and two independent raters were 96.9 ± 1.1% for Wake, 97.1 ± 1.4% for non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, and 91.4 ± 2.5% for rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and the overall agreement was 96.7 ± 0.7%. These results indicate that the accuracies of sleep staging remain high even though only a single EEG channel was used and that a system based on this scheme would be suitable for realtime and long-term studies of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangzhan Fang
- Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Xia
- Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunpeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, People's Republic of China
| | - Tiejun Liu
- Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, People's Republic of China
| | - Dezhong Yao
- Key Laboratory for NeuroInformation of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, People's Republic of China
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Stephenson R, Caron AM, Cassel DB, Kostela JC. Automated analysis of sleep-wake state in rats. J Neurosci Methods 2009; 184:263-74. [PMID: 19703489 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2009] [Revised: 08/13/2009] [Accepted: 08/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A fully automated computer-based sleep scoring system is described and validated for use in rats. The system was designed to emulate visual sleep scoring by using the same basic features of the electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG), and a similar set of decision-making rules. State indices are calculated for each 5s epoch by combination of amplitudes (microVrms) of 6 filtered EEG frequency bands (EEGlo, d.c.-1.5Hz; delta, 1.5-6Hz; theta, 6-9Hz; alpha, 10.5-15Hz; beta, 22-30Hz; gamma, 35-45Hz; Sigma(EEG)=delta+theta+alpha+beta+gamma) and EMG (10-100Hz) yielding dimensionless ratios: WAKE-index=(EMGxgamma)/theta; NREM-index=(deltaxalpha)/gamma(2); REM-index=theta(3)/(deltaxalphaxEMG); artifact-index=[(2xEEG(lo))+beta]*(gamma/Sigma(EEG)). The index values are re-scaled and normalized, thereby dispensing with the need for animal-specific threshold values. The system was validated by direct comparison with visually scored data in 9 rats. Overall, the computer and visual scores were 96% concordant, which is similar to inter-rater agreement in visual scoring. False-positive error rate was <5%. A re-test protocol in 7 rats confirmed the long-term stability of the system in studies lasting 5 weeks. The system was implemented and further validated in a study of sleep architecture in 7 rats under a 12:12h LD cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Stephenson
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Harbord Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3G5.
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Fang G, Zhang C, Xia Y, Lai Y, Liu T, You Z, Yao D. The effect of different EEG derivations on sleep staging in rats: the frontal midline–parietal bipolar electrode for sleep scoring. Physiol Meas 2009; 30:589-601. [DOI: 10.1088/0967-3334/30/7/005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Keating GL, Kuhar MJ, Rye DB. High dose CART peptide induces abnormal EEG activity and behavioral seizures. Neuropeptides 2008; 42:199-204. [PMID: 18178249 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2007.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2007] [Accepted: 11/23/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptides are neurotransmitters found throughout the nervous system and in the periphery. CART has an important role in the regulation of food intake, anxiety, endocrine function, and in mesolimbic-mediated reward and reinforcement. This short report casts light upon previous descriptions of presumed behavioral seizure and tremor activity following administration of CART into the central nervous system. By employing electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings, we document the state of cerebrocortical activity. We find that intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of 5 microg of CART 55-102 readily produces an abnormal EEG characterized initially by high amplitude hypersynchronous alpha in the 8-10 Hz range during behavioral wakefulness as manifest in both cortical and hippocampal theta EEG channels. This reliably progressed in three of three animals tested to unequivocal epileptiform activity accompanied by tremors and assumption of a rigid, tonic body posture. The neural substrates underlying this finding are unclear. This novel description of the epileptogenic quality of CART should lend caution to interpretations of the behaviors attributed to CART in other experimental paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenda L Keating
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, 101 Woodruff Circle, Suite 6000, WMB, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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