1
|
Kim JW, Lee YB, Hong YS, Jung H, Lee GH. Potential Food Inclination of Crab-Eating Macaques in Laboratory Environments: Enhancing Positive Reinforcement Training and Health Optimization. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1123. [PMID: 38612362 PMCID: PMC11010923 DOI: 10.3390/ani14071123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Positive reinforcement and training for health optimization are pivotal for successful studies with monkeys. Potential food inclination is important for studies on crab-eating macaques in laboratory environments, but evaluations remain scarce. We explored crab-eating macaques' potential food inclination to establish a reward system for future behavioral assessments. Twelve male and three female monkeys underwent a food inclination assessment in which they were offered four food categories-fruits, vegetables, proteins, and nuts. The monkeys exhibited a higher inclination for plant-based foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, over animal-based proteins like chicken and tuna (p < 0.0001), with a notable inclination for nuts (eaten/provided = 100%). Additionally, the consistency of potential food inclination after repeated offerings was investigated, revealing a time-dependent increase in inclination for protein items. Food consumption ratios correlated positively with caloric intake (r = 0.59, p = 0.02), implying that individuals with a regular high caloric intake and increased body weight are more likely to accept food during positive reinforcement training. Our findings suggest fruits, vegetables, protein-rich foods, and nuts can help with health optimization. However, animal-based protein-rich foods initially had a low preference, which may increase over time. Our study can provide guidelines for positive reinforcement training and health optimization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Gwang-Hoon Lee
- Preclinical Research Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation, Daegu 41061, Republic of Korea (Y.S.H.); (H.J.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Gauvin DV, McComb M, Farero R. A Commentary on Fasting of Nonclinical Research Animals. Int J Toxicol 2024; 43:196-208. [PMID: 38151260 DOI: 10.1177/10915818231218975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
This commentary discusses the implementation of fasting in nonclinical animal experimental subjects. The short-term removal of food from cages of experimental animals is in all respects innocuous. The term "stress" is ill-defined and the statutes and regulations governing animal research laboratories that exert their authority in the performance of their operations do so without substantive grounds to base compliance. The legislative and administrative history of the implementation of the Animal Welfare Act (AWA) has evolved into the development of laboratory management strategies that focus on the reduction of the biological cost of stress to the animals and the determination of when subclinical stress (eustress) becomes distress. Animal welfare is based on the tenet that in laboratories conducting animal research in compliance with Good Laboratory Practices (Title 21 USC, Chapter 13,§58), it is the study protocol and the study director that establish procedures and processes that are approved by each Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee to ensure the humane care and use of animals in research, teaching, and testing and to ensure compliance with guidelines and regulations. This approval process establishes the justification of eustress in the environment that do not rise to the threshold of distress under the AWA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David V Gauvin
- Department of Neurobehavioral Sciences, Charles River Laboratories - MWN, Mattawan, MI, USA
| | - Margaret McComb
- Department of Neurobehavioral Sciences, Charles River Laboratories - MWN, Mattawan, MI, USA
| | - Ryan Farero
- Department of Neurobehavioral Sciences, Charles River Laboratories - MWN, Mattawan, MI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ha LJ, Kim M, Yeo HG, Baek I, Kim K, Lee M, Lee Y, Choi HJ. Development of an assessment method for freely moving nonhuman primates' eating behavior using manual and deep learning analysis. Heliyon 2024; 10:e25561. [PMID: 38356587 PMCID: PMC10865331 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Although eating is imperative for survival, few comprehensive methods have been developed to assess freely moving nonhuman primates' eating behavior. In the current study, we distinguished eating behavior into appetitive and consummatory phases and developed nine indices to study them using manual and deep learning-based (DeepLabCut) techniques. Method The indices were utilized to three rhesus macaques by different palatability and hunger levels to validate their utility. To execute the experiment, we designed the eating behavior cage and manufactured the artificial food. The total number of trials was 3, with 1 trial conducted using natural food and 2 trials using artificial food. Result As a result, the indices of highest utility for hunger effect were approach frequency and consummatory duration. Appetitive composite score and consummatory duration showed the highest utility for palatability effect. To elucidate the effects of hunger and palatability, we developed 2D visualization plots based on manual indices. These 2D visualization methods could intuitively depict the palatability perception and hunger internal state. Furthermore, the developed deep learning-based analysis proved accurate and comparable with manual analysis. When comparing the time required for analysis, deep learning-based analysis was 24-times faster than manual analysis. Moreover, temporal and spatial dynamics were visualized via manual and deep learning-based analysis. Based on temporal dynamics analysis, the patterns were classified into four categories: early decline, steady decline, mid-peak with early incline, and late decline. Heatmap of spatial dynamics and trajectory-related visualization could elucidate a consumption posture and a higher spatial occupancy of food zone in hunger and with palatable food. Discussion Collectively, this study describes a newly developed and validated multi-phase method for assessing freely moving nonhuman primate eating behavior using manual and deep learning-based analyses. These effective tools will prove valuable in food reward (palatability effect) and homeostasis (hunger effect) research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Jaesun Ha
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Meelim Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Republic of Korea
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Center for Wireless and Population Health Systems (CWPHS), University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health and Human Longevity Science, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Hyeon-Gu Yeo
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Republic of Korea
- KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea National University of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea
| | - Inhyeok Baek
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Keonwoo Kim
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Republic of Korea
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Republic of Korea
| | - Miwoo Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngjeon Lee
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Republic of Korea
- KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea National University of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung Jin Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
A framework and resource for global collaboration in non-human primate neuroscience. CURRENT RESEARCH IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crneur.2023.100079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023] Open
|
5
|
Prescott MJ, Leach MC, Truelove MA. Harmonisation of welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets used or bred for research. F1000Res 2022; 11:272. [PMID: 36111214 PMCID: PMC9459172 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.109380.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Accurate assessment of the welfare of non-human primates (NHPs) used and bred for scientific purposes is essential for effective implementation of obligations to optimise their well-being, for validation of refinement techniques and novel welfare indicators, and for ensuring the highest quality data is obtained from these animals. Despite the importance of welfare assessment in NHP research, there is little consensus on what should be measured. Greater harmonisation of welfare indicators between facilities would enable greater collaboration and data sharing to address welfare-related questions in the management and use of NHPs. Methods: A Delphi consultation was used to survey attendees of the 2019 NC3Rs Primate Welfare Meeting (73 respondents) to build consensus on which welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets are reliable, valid, and practicable, and how these can be measured. Results: Self-harm behaviour, social enrichment, cage dimensions, body weight, a health monitoring programme, appetite, staff training, and positive reinforcement training were considered valid, reliable, and practicable indicators for macaques (≥70% consensus) within a hypothetical scenario context involving 500 animals. Indicators ranked important for assessing marmoset welfare were body weight, NHP induced and environmentally induced injuries, cage furniture, huddled posture, mortality, blood in excreta, and physical enrichment. Participants working with macaques in infectious disease and breeding identified a greater range of indicators as valid and reliable than did those working in neuroscience and toxicology, where animal-based indicators were considered the most important. The findings for macaques were compared with a previous Delphi consultation, and the expert-defined consensus from the two surveys used to develop a prototype protocol for assessing macaque welfare in research settings. Conclusions: Together the Delphi results and proto-protocol enable those working with research NHPs to more effectively assess the welfare of the animals in their care and to collaborate to advance refinement of NHP management and use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Prescott
- National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), London, NW1 2BE, UK
| | - Matthew C. Leach
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Melissa A. Truelove
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, GA 30329, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Prescott MJ, Leach MC, Truelove MA. Harmonisation of welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets used or bred for research. F1000Res 2022; 11:272. [PMID: 36111214 PMCID: PMC9459172.2 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.109380.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Accurate assessment of the welfare of non-human primates (NHPs) used and bred for scientific purposes is essential for effective implementation of obligations to optimise their well-being, for validation of refinement techniques and novel welfare indicators, and for ensuring the highest quality data is obtained from these animals. Despite the importance of welfare assessment in NHP research, there is little consensus on what should be measured. Greater harmonisation of welfare indicators between facilities would enable greater collaboration and data sharing to address welfare-related questions in the management and use of NHPs. Methods: A Delphi consultation was used to survey attendees of the 2019 NC3Rs Primate Welfare Meeting (73 respondents) to build consensus on which welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets are reliable, valid, and practicable, and how these can be measured. Results: Self-harm behaviour, social enrichment, cage dimensions, body weight, a health monitoring programme, appetite, staff training, and positive reinforcement training were considered valid, reliable, and practicable indicators for macaques (≥70% consensus) within a hypothetical scenario context involving 500 animals. Indicators ranked important for assessing marmoset welfare were body weight, NHP induced and environmentally induced injuries, cage furniture, huddled posture, mortality, blood in excreta, and physical enrichment. Participants working with macaques in infectious disease and breeding identified a greater range of indicators as valid and reliable than did those working in neuroscience and toxicology, where animal-based indicators were considered the most important. The findings for macaques were compared with a previous Delphi consultation, and the expert-defined consensus from the two surveys used to develop a prototype protocol for assessing macaque welfare in research settings. Conclusions: Together the Delphi results and proto-protocol enable those working with research NHPs to more effectively assess the welfare of the animals in their care and to collaborate to advance refinement of NHP management and use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Prescott
- National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), London, NW1 2BE, UK
| | - Matthew C Leach
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Melissa A Truelove
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, GA 30329, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Prescott MJ, Leach MC, Truelove MA. Harmonisation of welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets used or bred for research. F1000Res 2022; 11:272. [PMID: 36111214 PMCID: PMC9459172 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.109380.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Accurate assessment of the welfare of non-human primates (NHPs) used and bred for scientific purposes is essential for effective implementation of obligations to optimise their well-being, for validation of refinement techniques and novel welfare indicators, and for ensuring the highest quality data is obtained from these animals. Despite the importance of welfare assessment in NHP research, there is little consensus on what should be measured. Greater harmonisation of welfare indicators between facilities would enable greater collaboration and data sharing to address welfare-related questions in the management and use of NHPs. Methods: A Delphi consultation was used to survey attendees of the 2019 NC3Rs Primate Welfare Meeting (73 respondents) to build consensus on which welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets are reliable, valid, and practicable, and how these can be measured. Results: Self-harm behaviour, social enrichment, cage dimensions, body weight, a health monitoring programme, appetite, staff training, and positive reinforcement training were considered valid, reliable, and practicable indicators for macaques (≥70% consensus) within a hypothetical scenario context involving 500 animals. Indicators ranked important for assessing marmoset welfare were body weight, NHP induced and environmentally induced injuries, cage furniture, huddled posture, mortality, blood in excreta, and physical enrichment. Participants working with macaques in infectious disease and breeding identified a greater range of indicators as valid and reliable than did those working in neuroscience and toxicology, where animal-based indicators were considered the most important. The findings for macaques were compared with a previous Delphi consultation, and the expert-defined consensus from the two surveys used to develop a prototype protocol for assessing macaque welfare in research settings. Conclusions: Together the Delphi results and proto-protocol enable those working with research NHPs to more effectively assess the welfare of the animals in their care and to collaborate to advance refinement of NHP management and use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Prescott
- National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), London, NW1 2BE, UK
| | - Matthew C. Leach
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Melissa A. Truelove
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, GA 30329, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Lehmann SJ, Corneil BD. Completing the puzzle: Why studies in non-human primates are needed to better understand the effects of non-invasive brain stimulation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 132:1074-1085. [PMID: 34742722 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Brain stimulation is a core method in neuroscience. Numerous non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques are currently in use in basic and clinical research, and recent advances promise the ability to non-invasively access deep brain structures. While encouraging, there is a surprising gap in our understanding of precisely how NIBS perturbs neural activity throughout an interconnected network, and how such perturbed neural activity ultimately links to behaviour. In this review, we will consider why non-human primate (NHP) models of NIBS are ideally situated to address this gap in knowledge, and why the oculomotor network that moves our line of sight offers a particularly valuable platform in which to empirically test hypothesis regarding NIBS-induced changes in brain and behaviour. NHP models of NIBS will enable investigation of the complex, dynamic effects of brain stimulation across multiple hierarchically interconnected brain areas, networks, and effectors. By establishing such links between brain and behavioural output, work in NHPs can help optimize experimental and therapeutic approaches, improve NIBS efficacy, and reduce side-effects of NIBS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J Lehmann
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada.
| | - Brian D Corneil
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada; Department of Psychology, Western University, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada; Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Blood Analysis of Laboratory Macaca mulatta Used for Neuroscience Research: Investigation of Long-Term and Cumulative Effects of Implants, Fluid Control, and Laboratory Procedures. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0284-21.2021. [PMID: 34556556 PMCID: PMC8528508 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0284-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The nonhuman primate (NHP) constitutes an extraordinarily important model in neuroscience research for understanding the neuronal underpinnings of perceptual, motor, cognitive, and executive functions of the primate brain, and to study the physiological causes, effects, and potential treatments of brain disorders. Because of their cognitive capabilities, NHPs receive special attention in animal welfare regulations around the world, and their well-being is a benchmark for the evaluation, monitoring, and refinement of experimental procedures. As a consequence, many typical neuroscientific procedures are considered only mildly severe by animal welfare boards. There is, however, an ongoing debate about possible long-term and cumulative effects. Because of a lack of longitudinal data, it is unclear whether mildly severe procedures may cause more significant harm on the long-term, and to what extent they may impact animal well-being and healthiness over time. We here make use of a database of blood samples drawn over a period of 15 years from 39 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) to address the issue of long-term, cumulative effects of neuroscientific procedures. A careful analysis of indicative primate blood markers for chronic inflammation, hydration status, and stress levels, their comparison to baseline values from both the same animals and the literature, and evaluation of additional hematologic, physiological, and behavioral parameters did not provide support for the notion of long-term, cumulative effects on the monkeys’ healthiness and well-being. The results may serve the community as a reference for the severity assessment of neuroscientific experiments involving NHPs.
Collapse
|
10
|
Rice NC, Frechette BP, Myers TM. Implementation of Manual and Automated Water Regulation for Rats ( Rattus norvegicus) and Ferrets ( Mustela putorius). JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE 2021; 60:519-528. [PMID: 34452658 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-20-000158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Water regulation is a procedure that allows animals to consume water volumes equivalent to ad libitum access, but access is limited to specific time intervals (that is, water is not available outside of the designated access periods). Despite the relatively common use of water regulation in research, the implementation method is rarely detailed, stating only that water was available in the animal's home cage at specific times. For planned toxicologic assessments, we placed rats (n = 510) and ferrets (n = 16) on water regulation using both automated and manual methods. In testing our systems, we defined "successful implementation" as maintenance of appropriate weight gain and health status. An automated system that controlled water access to an entire rat rack was successful for most rats, but several rats failed to consume enough water even after 2 wk of experience. Manual methods of water regulation were successful in rats by either moving the cage to prevent access to the drinking valve or by placing/removing water bottles. An automated system that controlled water access from water bottles was implemented for ferrets and was maintained for up to 30 wk. Retrospective comparison of body weights to standard growth curves for both species showed that all animals grew normally despite water regulation. Differences in the systems and some species considerations provide insights into the key elements necessary for successful water regulation in rats and ferrets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel C Rice
- US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Gunpowder, Maryland
| | | | - Todd M Myers
- US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Gunpowder, Maryland;,
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Mitchell AS, Hartig R, Basso MA, Jarrett W, Kastner S, Poirier C. International primate neuroscience research regulation, public engagement and transparency opportunities. Neuroimage 2021; 229:117700. [PMID: 33418072 PMCID: PMC7994292 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Scientific excellence is a necessity for progress in biomedical research. As research becomes ever more international, establishing international collaborations will be key to advancing our scientific knowledge. Understanding the similarities in standards applied by different nations to animal research, and where the differences might lie, is crucial. Cultural differences and societal values will also contribute to these similarities and differences between countries and continents. Our overview is not comprehensive for all species, but rather focuses on non-human primate (NHP) research, involving New World marmosets and Old World macaques, conducted in countries where NHPs are involved in neuroimaging research. Here, an overview of the ethics and regulations is provided to help assess welfare standards amongst primate research institutions. A comparative examination of these standards was conducted to provide a basis for establishing a common set of standards for animal welfare. These criteria may serve to develop international guidelines, which can be managed by an International Animal Welfare and Use Committee (IAWUC). Internationally, scientists have a moral responsibility to ensure excellent care and welfare of their animals, which in turn, influences the quality of their research. When working with animal models, maintaining a high quality of care ("culture of care") and welfare is essential. The transparent promotion of this level of care and welfare, along with the results of the research and its impact, may reduce public concerns associated with animal experiments in neuroscience research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Mitchell
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
| | - Renée Hartig
- Centre for Integrative Neurosciences, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Michele A Basso
- Fuster Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences UCLA Los Angeles 90095, CA United States
| | - Wendy Jarrett
- Understanding Animal Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sabine Kastner
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute & Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, United States
| | - Colline Poirier
- Biosciences Institute & Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Prescott MJ, Poirier C. The role of MRI in applying the 3Rs to non-human primate neuroscience. Neuroimage 2020; 225:117521. [PMID: 33137476 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnetic resonance imaging is playing a significant role in applying the 3Rs to neuroscience studies using non-human primates. MRI scans are contributing to refinement by enhancing the selection and assignment of animals, guiding the manufacture of custom-fitted recording and head fixation devices, and assisting with the diagnosis of health issues and their treatment. MRI is also being used to better understand the impact of neuroscience procedures on the welfare of NHPs. MRI has helped to optimise NHP use and make greater scientific progress than would otherwise be made using larger numbers of animals. Whilst human fMRI studies have replaced some NHP studies, their potential to directly replace NHP electrophysiology is limited at present. Given the considerable advantages of MRI for electrophysiology experiments, including improved welfare of NHPs, consideration should be given to focusing NHP electrophysiology laboratories around MRI facilities. Greater sharing of MRI data sets, and improvements in MRI contrast and resolution, are expected to further advance the 3Rs in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Prescott
- National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), Gibbs Building, 215 Euston Road, London NW1 2BE, UK.
| | - Colline Poirier
- Biosciences Institute & Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Newcastle University, Medical School, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Prescott MJ. Ethical and Welfare Implications of Genetically Altered Non-Human Primates for Biomedical Research. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL ETHICS RESEARCH 2020; 2:151-176. [PMID: 33851094 PMCID: PMC7610575 DOI: 10.1163/25889567-bja10002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Breakthroughs in gene editing technologies have made it feasible to create genetically altered (GA) non-human primate (NHP) models of disease. This area of research is accelerating, particularly in China, Japan and the USA, and could lead to an increase in NHP use globally. The hope is that genetic models in animal species closely related to humans will significantly improve understanding of neurological diseases and validation of potential therapeutic interventions, for which there is a dire need. However, the creation and use of GA NHPS raises serious animal welfare and ethical issues, which are highlighted here. It represents a step change in how these highly sentient animals are used in biomedical research, because of the large numbers required, inherent wastage and the sum of the harms caused to the animals involved. There is little evidence of these important issues being addressed alongside the rapidly advancing science. We are still learning about how gene editing tools work in NHPS, and significant added scientific and medical benefit from GA NHP models has yet to be demonstrated. Together, this suggests that current regulatory and review frameworks, in some jurisdictions at least, are not adequately equipped to deal with this emerging, complex area of NHP use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Prescott
- National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), Gibbs Building, 215 Euston Road, London, NW1 2BE, UK
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Correction: Rhesus macaques form preferences for brand logos through sex and social status based advertising. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237595. [PMID: 32760130 PMCID: PMC7410201 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193055.].
Collapse
|
15
|
Burnside R, Ullsperger M. Social comparison impacts stimulus evaluation in a competitive social learning task. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0234397. [PMID: 32584827 PMCID: PMC7316245 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0234397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
When we perform an action, the outcome that follows it can change the value we place on that behaviour, making it more or less likely to be repeated in the future. However, the values that we learn are not objective: we interpret the outcomes that we receive for ourselves relative to those that share our environment, i.e. we engage in social comparison. The temporal dynamics of physiological responses to stimulus valuation in social learning tasks are poorly understood, particularly in human participants. Therefore, we recorded stimulus-locked event-related potentials with 64-channel EEG to examine stimulus valuation, following the design of a study previously used in macaques. Pairs of participants performed a social learning task in which they received outcomes sequentially for a presented stimulus (partner first) by pressing a button in response to a cue. There were two conditions: one in which stimulus values varied for the participant but output a constant rate of reward for the partner (self-variable blocks), and another condition in which this payout was reversed (other-variable blocks). We then measured participants' self-reported competitiveness. Approximately 200 ms post-stimulus, an ERP related to stimulus evaluation and attentional processing appeared to encode own stimulus value in self-variable blocks. In other-variable blocks the same pattern of activity was reversed, even though the value of the stimulus for the participant did not depend on the stimulus presented. Outcome-locked analyses further showed that attention dedicated to the partner's outcome was greater in more competitive participants. We conclude that subjective stimulus value can be reflected in early stimulus-locked ERP responses and that competitive participants may be more invested in their own performance relative to the other player, hence their increased interest in the outcome of their partner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Burnside
- Department of Neuropsychology, Institute of Psychology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Markus Ullsperger
- Department of Neuropsychology, Institute of Psychology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
Training nonhuman primates (NHPs) to perform cognitive tasks is essential for many neuroscientific investigations, yet laboratory training is a time-consuming process with inherent limitations. Habituating NHPs to the laboratory staff and experimental equipment can take months before NHPs are ready to proceed to the primary tasks. Laboratory training also necessarily separates NHPs from their home-room social group and typically involves some form of restraint or limited mobility, and data collection is often limited to a few hours per day so that multiple NHPs can be trained on the same equipment. Consequently, it can often take a year to train NHPs on complex cognitive tasks. To overcome these issues, we developed a low-cost, open-source, wireless touchscreen training system that can be installed in the home-room environment. The automated device can run continuously all day, including over weekends, without experimenter intervention. The system utilizes real-time facial recognition to initiate subject-specific tasks and provide accurate data logging, without the need for implanted microchips or separation of the NHPs. The system allows NHPs to select their preferred reward on each trial and to work when and for as long as they desire, and it can analyze task performance in real time and adapt the task parameters in order to expedite training. We demonstrate that NHPs consistently use this system on a daily basis to quickly learn complex behavioral tasks. The system therefore addresses many of the welfare and experimental limitations of laboratory-based training of NHPs and provides a platform for wireless electrophysiological investigations in more naturalistic, freely moving environments.
Collapse
|
17
|
Association of Primate Veterinarians Food Restriction Guidelines for Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2019; 58:255-258. [PMID: 30871672 PMCID: PMC6433364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
|
18
|
Winn CB, Issa EB, Curcillo CP, Townes CA, Burns MA, Patterson MM. Daily Water Intake by Common Marmosets ( Callithrix jacchus) and Recommendations Regarding Fluid Regulation. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE 2018; 58:16-20. [PMID: 30538006 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-18-000046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The typical daily water intake of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) in a research setting has not been well characterized. Because these New World primates are in demand as animal models for neurobehavioral experiments, which can include the potential use of fluid regulation for training, veterinary and research staff need to understand how marmosets keep hydrated under normal circumstances. In the current study, we measured the water consumption of older (age, 5 to 12 y; n = 11) and younger (age, 1 to 2 y; n = 11) marmosets every 3 h during the 12-h light phase in 2 different months (January and July). The overall daily water intake (mean ± 1 SD) was 61.3 ± 20.4 mL/kg (range, 36.3 to 99.0 mL/kg); water intake by an individual marmoset or cohoused pair was fairly consistent from day to day. Water intake did not change across the four 3-h periods measured during the day, and minimal water was consumed overnight when the room lights were off. In addition, daily water intake did not differ between the 2 mo of measurements. Older animals drank significantly more than the younger group, and weight was directly correlated with water intake. Water intake was not affected by body condition score or housing status. The variation in water consumption among marmosets underscores the need for individualization of fluid regulation guidelines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline B Winn
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Cambridge Massachusetts
| | - Elias B Issa
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Chiara P Curcillo
- University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Martin AL, Franklin AN, Perlman JE, Bloomsmith MA. Systematic assessment of food item preference and reinforcer effectiveness: Enhancements in training laboratory-housed rhesus macaques. Behav Processes 2018; 157:445-452. [PMID: 30003936 PMCID: PMC6240383 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Revised: 05/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of systematic preference assessments can enhance positive reinforcement training with captive animals. We found that the multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) technique identified food preferences in laboratory housed rhesus macaques, with raisins and grapes being ranked higher on average than dried apricot, pasta, and green beans (Friedman Test, χ2 (4) = 35.52, p < .001). Agreement between individuals (N = 21) was moderate (Kendall's W = 0.42), and consistency across time varied among individuals (W = .03-.90). Highly preferred items identified by the MSWO assessment were subsequently found to increase subjects' engagement in a husbandry task on which they were being trained (Mann-Whitney U = 6.00, p = .002) and to improve performance on a progressive ratio schedule (Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Z = -2.17, p = .03) when compared with low preference items. The progressive ratio technique supplements other preference assessment techniques by measuring the amount of work a subject will do to gain access to an item. The use of more effective reinforcers identified through systematic assessment has the potential to increase animal performance on husbandry and research tasks and to improve animal welfare in the laboratory setting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Allison L Martin
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, United States; Department of Psychology, Kennesaw State University, 402 Bartow Ave NW, MD 2202, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States.
| | - Andrea N Franklin
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, United States
| | - Jaine E Perlman
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, United States
| | - Mollie A Bloomsmith
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, United States
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Gray H, Thiele A, Rowe C. Using preferred fluids and different reward schedules to motivate rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta) in cognitive tasks. Lab Anim 2018; 53:372-382. [PMID: 30282500 DOI: 10.1177/0023677218801390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) used in behavioural neuroscience are often required to complete cognitively complex tasks, for which a high level of motivation is essential. To induce motivation, researchers may implement fluid-restriction protocols, whereby freely available water is limited, such that fluid can be used as a reward in the laboratory. A variety of different rewards and schedules are used, but there exists a lack of data assessing their effectiveness. In this study, we aimed to quantify fluid preference in rhesus macaques and to use these preferences to compare the motivational quality of different reward schedules: the monkey's previous reward (i.e. the fluid used to reward them in past studies), their new preferred reward, a variable schedule of previous and preferred reward, and a choice between the previous and preferred rewards. We found that it may be possible to reduce the level of restriction if an adequately motivating preferred reward is identified, but that this is dependent on the animal. Each monkey responded differently to both the fluid-preference assessments and to the different reward schedules. As such, monkeys should not be subject to 'blanket' protocols but should be assessed individually to maintain adequate scientific data collection at the least severe level of fluid restriction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helen Gray
- 1 School of Biology, University of Leeds, UK
| | | | - Candy Rowe
- 2 Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, UK
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Berger M, Calapai A, Stephan V, Niessing M, Burchardt L, Gail A, Treue S. Standardized automated training of rhesus monkeys for neuroscience research in their housing environment. J Neurophysiol 2018; 119:796-807. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00614.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Teaching nonhuman primates the complex cognitive behavioral tasks that are central to cognitive neuroscience research is an essential and challenging endeavor. It is crucial for the scientific success that the animals learn to interpret the often complex task rules and reliably and enduringly act accordingly. To achieve consistent behavior and comparable learning histories across animals, it is desirable to standardize training protocols. Automatizing the training can significantly reduce the time invested by the person training the animal. In addition, self-paced training schedules with individualized learning speeds based on automatic updating of task conditions could enhance the animals’ motivation and welfare. We developed a training paradigm for across-task unsupervised training (AUT) of successively more complex cognitive tasks to be administered through a stand-alone housing-based system optimized for rhesus monkeys in neuroscience research settings (Calapai A, Berger M, Niessing M, Heisig K, Brockhausen R, Treue S, Gail A. Behav Res Methods 5: 1–11, 2016). The AUT revealed interindividual differences in long-term learning progress between animals, helping to characterize learning personalities, and commonalities, helping to identify easier and more difficult learning steps in the training protocol. Our results demonstrate that 1) rhesus monkeys stay engaged with the AUT over months despite access to water and food outside the experimental sessions but with lower numbers of interaction compared with conventional fluid-controlled training; 2) with unsupervised training across sessions and task levels, rhesus monkeys can learn tasks of sufficient complexity for state-of-the-art cognitive neuroscience in their housing environment; and 3) AUT learning progress is primarily determined by the number of interactions with the system rather than the mere exposure time. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We demonstrate that highly structured training of behavioral tasks, as used in neuroscience research, can be achieved in an unsupervised fashion over many sessions and task difficulties in a monkey housing environment. Employing a predefined training strategy allows for an observer-independent comparison of learning between animals and of training approaches. We believe that self-paced standardized training can be utilized for pretraining and animal selection and can contribute to animal welfare in a neuroscience research environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. Berger
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz-Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
- Faculty of Biology and Psychology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
| | - A. Calapai
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz-Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
- Leibniz-ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Goettingen, Germany
| | - V. Stephan
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz-Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
| | - M. Niessing
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz-Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
| | - L. Burchardt
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz-Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
| | - A. Gail
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz-Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
- Faculty of Biology and Psychology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
- Leibniz-ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Goettingen, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Goettingen, Germany
| | - S. Treue
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz-Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
- Faculty of Biology and Psychology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
- Leibniz-ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Goettingen, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Goettingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Acikalin MY, Watson KK, Fitzsimons GJ, Platt ML. Rhesus macaques form preferences for brand logos through sex and social status based advertising. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193055. [PMID: 29462189 PMCID: PMC5819778 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Like humans, monkeys value information about sex and status, inviting the hypothesis that our susceptibility to these factors in advertising arises from shared, ancestral biological mechanisms that prioritize social information. To test this idea, we asked whether rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) show choice behavior that is similar to humans in response to sex and social status in advertising. Our results show that monkeys form preferences for brand logos repeatedly paired with images of macaque genitals and high status monkeys. Moreover, monkeys sustain preferences for these brand logos even though choosing them provided no tangible rewards, a finding that cannot be explained by a decision mechanism operating solely on material outcomes. Together, our results endorse the hypothesis that the power of sex and status in advertising emerges from the spontaneous engagement of shared, ancestral neural circuits that prioritize information useful for navigating the social environment. Finally, our results show that simple associative conditioning is sufficient to explain the formation of preferences for brand logos paired with sexual or status-based images.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. Yavuz Acikalin
- Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Karli K. Watson
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
| | - Gavan J. Fitzsimons
- Fuqua School of Business, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Michael L. Platt
- The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Pfefferle D, Plümer S, Burchardt L, Treue S, Gail A. Assessment of stress responses in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to daily routine procedures in system neuroscience based on salivary cortisol concentrations. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0190190. [PMID: 29293564 PMCID: PMC5749769 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-human primates participating in neurophysiological research are exposed to potentially stressful experimental procedures, such as dietary control protocols, surgical implants and their maintenance, or social separation during training and experimental session. Here, we investigated the effect of controlled access to fluid, surgical implants, implant-related cleaning of skin margins, and behavioral training sessions on salivary cortisol levels of adult male rhesus macaques participating in neurophysiological research. The animals were trained to chew flavored cotton swabs to non-invasively collect saliva samples. Our data show no differences in cortisol levels between animals with and without implants, but both, controlled access to fluid and cleaning of implants individually increased salivary cortisol concentrations, while both together did not further increase the concentration. Specifically, before cleaning, individuals with controlled access to fluid had 55% higher cortisol concentrations than individuals with free access to fluid. Under free access to fluid, cortisol concentrations were 27% higher after cleaning while no effect of cleaning was found for individuals under controlled fluid access. Training sessions under controlled access to fluid also did not affect salivary cortisol concentrations. The observed changes in cortisol concentrations represent mild stress responses, as they are only a fraction of the range of the regular circadian changes in cortisol levels in rhesus monkeys. They also indicate that combinations of procedures do not necessarily lead to cumulative stress responses. Our results indicate that salivary cortisol levels of rhesus monkeys respond to neurophysiological experimental procedures and, hence, may be used to assess further refinements of such experimental methods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dana Pfefferle
- Welfare and Cognition Group, Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
- Leibniz-ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, German Primate Center & University of Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sina Plümer
- Welfare and Cognition Group, Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Leonore Burchardt
- Welfare and Cognition Group, Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Treue
- Welfare and Cognition Group, Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
- Leibniz-ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, German Primate Center & University of Göttingen, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alexander Gail
- Welfare and Cognition Group, Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center–Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
- Leibniz-ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, German Primate Center & University of Göttingen, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Göttingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
DeWind NK, Peng J, Luo A, Brannon EM, Platt ML. Pharmacological inactivation does not support a unique causal role for intraparietal sulcus in the discrimination of visual number. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0188820. [PMID: 29240774 PMCID: PMC5730202 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The "number sense" describes the intuitive ability to quantify without counting. Single neuron recordings in non-human primates and functional imaging in humans suggest the intraparietal sulcus is an important neuroanatomical locus of numerical estimation. Other lines of inquiry implicate the IPS in numerous other functions, including attention and decision making. Here we provide a direct test of whether IPS has functional specificity for numerosity judgments. We used muscimol to reversibly and independently inactivate the ventral and lateral intraparietal areas in two monkeys performing a numerical discrimination task and a color discrimination task, roughly equilibrated for difficulty. Inactivation of either area caused parallel impairments in both tasks and no evidence of a selective deficit in numerical processing. These findings do not support a causal role for the IPS in numerical discrimination, except insofar as it also has a role in the discrimination of color. We discuss our findings in light of several alternative hypotheses of IPS function, including a role in orienting responses, a general cognitive role in attention and decision making processes and a more specific role in ordinal comparison that encompasses both number and color judgments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas K. DeWind
- Psychology Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jiyun Peng
- Neurology Department, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Andrew Luo
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth M. Brannon
- Psychology Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Michael L. Platt
- Psychology Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Marketing Department, the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Kemp C, Thatcher H, Farningham D, Witham C, MacLarnon A, Holmes A, Semple S, Bethell EJ. A protocol for training group-housed rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta) to cooperate with husbandry and research procedures using positive reinforcement. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2017; 197:90-100. [PMID: 29200543 PMCID: PMC5678497 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Revised: 07/29/2017] [Accepted: 08/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
There has been increased recognition of the 3Rs in laboratory animal management over the last decade, including improvements in animal handling and housing. For example, positive reinforcement is now more widely used to encourage primates to cooperate with husbandry procedures, and improved enclosure design allows housing in social groups with opportunity to escape and avoid other primates and humans. Both practices have become gold standards in captive primate care resulting in improved health and behavioural outcomes. However, training individuals and social housing may be perceived as incompatible, and so it is important to share protocols, their outcomes and suggestions for planning and improvements for future uptake. Here we present a protocol with link to video for training rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) housed in single-male - multi-female breeding groups to sit at individual stations in the social enclosure. Our aim was that the monkeys could take part in welfare-related cognitive assessments without the need for removal from the group or interference by group members. To do this we required most individuals in a group to sit by individual stations at the same time. Most of the training was conducted by a single trainer with occasional assistance from a second trainer depending on availability. We successfully trained 61/65 monkeys housed in groups of up to nine adults (plus infants and juveniles) to sit by their individual stationing tools for >30 s. Males successfully trained on average within 30 min (2 training sessions); females trained on average in 1 h 52 min ± 13min (7.44 sessions), with rank (high, mid, low) affecting the number of sessions required. On average, dominant females trained in 1 h 26 min ± 16 min (5.7 sessions), mid ranked females in 1 h 52 min ± 20min (7.45 sessions), and subordinate females took 2 h 44 min ± 36 min (10.9 sessions). Age, group size, reproductive status, temperament, and early maternal separation did not influence the number of sessions a monkey required to reach criterion. We hope this protocol will be useful for facilities worldwide looking to house their animals in naturalistic social groups without impacting on animal husbandry and management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caralyn Kemp
- Centre for Research in Brain and Behaviour, School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, L3 3AF, UK
| | - Harriet Thatcher
- Centre for Research in Brain and Behaviour, School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, L3 3AF, UK
| | - David Farningham
- Medical Research Council Harwell Unit, Centre for Macaques, Salisbury, Wiltshire, SP4 0JQ, UK
| | - Claire Witham
- Medical Research Council Harwell Unit, Centre for Macaques, Salisbury, Wiltshire, SP4 0JQ, UK
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Ann MacLarnon
- Centre for Research in Evolutionary, Social and Interdisciplinary Anthropology, University of Roehampton, London, SW15 4JD, UK
| | - Amanda Holmes
- Centre for Research in Evolutionary, Social and Interdisciplinary Anthropology, University of Roehampton, London, SW15 4JD, UK
| | - Stuart Semple
- Centre for Research in Evolutionary, Social and Interdisciplinary Anthropology, University of Roehampton, London, SW15 4JD, UK
| | - Emily J. Bethell
- Centre for Research in Brain and Behaviour, School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, L3 3AF, UK
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Tulip J, Zimmermann JB, Farningham D, Jackson A. An automated system for positive reinforcement training of group-housed macaque monkeys at breeding and research facilities. J Neurosci Methods 2017; 285:6-18. [PMID: 28472677 PMCID: PMC5473526 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2017.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Behavioural training through positive reinforcement techniques is a well-recognised refinement to laboratory animal welfare. Behavioural neuroscience research requires subjects to be trained to perform repetitions of specific behaviours for food/fluid reward. Some animals fail to perform at a sufficient level, limiting the amount of data that can be collected and increasing the number of animals required for each study. NEW METHOD We have implemented automated positive reinforcement training systems (comprising a button press task with variable levels of difficulty using LED cues and a fluid reward) at the breeding facility and research facility, to compare performance across these different settings, to pre-screen animals for selection and refine training protocols. RESULTS Animals learned 1- and 4-choice button tasks within weeks of home enclosure training, with some inter-individual differences. High performance levels (∼200-300 trials per 60min session at ∼80% correct) were obtained without food or fluid restriction. Moreover, training quickly transferred to a laboratory version of the task. Animals that acquired the task at the breeding facility subsequently performed better both in early home enclosure sessions upon arrival at the research facility, and also in laboratory sessions. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD(S) Automated systems at the breeding facility may be used to pre-screen animals for suitability for behavioural neuroscience research. In combination with conventional training, both the breeding and research facility systems facilitate acquisition and transference of learning. CONCLUSIONS Automated systems have the potential to refine training protocols and minimise requirements for food/fluid control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Tulip
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE2 4HH, UK
| | | | | | - Andrew Jackson
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE2 4HH, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Gray H, Pearce B, Thiele A, Rowe C. The use of preferred social stimuli as rewards for rhesus macaques in behavioural neuroscience. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0178048. [PMID: 28542356 PMCID: PMC5444662 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Macaques are often motivated to perform in neuroscientific experiments by implementing fluid restriction protocols. Daily access to water is controlled and the monkeys are rewarded with droplets of fluid for performing correct trials in the laboratory. Although these protocols are widely used and highly effective, it is important from a 3Rs perspective to investigate refinements that may help to lessen the severity of the fluid restriction applied. We assessed the use of social stimuli (images of conspecifics) as rewards for four rhesus macaques performing simple cognitive tasks. We found that individual preferences for images of male faces, female perinea and control stimuli could be identified in each monkey. However, using preferred images did not translate into effective motivators on a trial-by-trial basis: animals preferred fluid rewards, even when fluid restriction was relaxed. There was no difference in the monkeys' performance of a task when using greyscale versus colour images. Based on our findings, we cannot recommend the use of social stimuli, in this form, as a refinement to current fluid restriction protocols. We discuss the potential alternatives and possibilities for future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helen Gray
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Bradley Pearce
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Thiele
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Candy Rowe
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Prescott MJ, Lidster K. Improving quality of science through better animal welfare: the NC3Rs strategy. Lab Anim (NY) 2017; 46:152-156. [DOI: 10.1038/laban.1217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
|
29
|
Physiological, Behavioral, and Scientific Impact of Different Fluid Control Protocols in the Rhesus Macaque ( Macaca mulatta). eNeuro 2016; 3:eN-NWR-0195-16. [PMID: 27679812 PMCID: PMC5032891 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0195-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhesus macaques are an important model in behavioral neuroscience due to their advanced cognitive abilities. To motivate animals to engage in complex tasks, fluid rewards, in conjunction with fluid control protocols, are often used. The impact of these protocols on animal welfare is controversial. We compared two fluid control protocols against a protocol providing free access to water and evaluated the impacts on physiological states of hydration, behavioral measures of welfare, and scientific output. Blood physiology did not significantly differ between any of the protocols, and urine measures were indicative of well functioning, healthy kidneys. Changes in behaviors were limited, the main one being an increase in motivation to drink on the stricter fluid control protocol, and improved task performance early in the week. Overall, fluid control protocols had little measurable impact on the welfare of rhesus macaques while ensuring that scientific data of high quality could be obtained.
Collapse
|
30
|
Arnason G, Clausen J. On balance: weighing harms and benefits in fundamental neurological research using nonhuman primates. MEDICINE, HEALTH CARE, AND PHILOSOPHY 2016; 19:229-237. [PMID: 26351063 DOI: 10.1007/s11019-015-9663-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
One of the most controversial areas of animal research is the use of nonhuman primates for fundamental research. At the centre of the controversy is the question of whether the benefits of research outweigh the harms. We argue that the evaluation of harms and benefits is highly problematic. We describe some common procedures in neurological research using nonhuman primates and the difficulties in evaluating the harm involved. Even if the harm could be quantified, it is unlikely that it could be meaningfully aggregated over different procedures, let alone different animals. A similar problem arises for evaluating benefits. It is not clear how benefits could be quantified, and even if they could be, values for different aspects of expected benefits cannot be simply added up. Sorting harms and benefits in three or four categories cannot avoid the charge of arbitrariness and runs the risk of imposing its structure on the moral decision. The metaphor of weighing or balancing harms and benefits is inappropriate for the moral decision about whether to use nonhuman primates for research. Arguing that the harms and benefits in this context are incommensurable, we suggest describing the moral consideration of harms and benefits as a coherent trade-off. Such a decision does not require commensurability. It must be well-informed about the suffering involved and the potential benefits, it must be consistent with the legal, regulatory and institutional framework within which it is made, and it must cohere with other judgments in relevant areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gardar Arnason
- Institute for Ethics and History of Medicine, University of Tübingen, Gartenstr. 47, 72074, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Jens Clausen
- Institute for Ethics and History of Medicine, University of Tübingen, Gartenstr. 47, 72074, Tübingen, Germany
- Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), Tübingen, Germany
- International Centre for Ethics in the Sciences and Humanities (IZEW), Tübingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Opportunities for improving animal welfare in rodent models of epilepsy and seizures. J Neurosci Methods 2015; 260:2-25. [PMID: 26376175 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Animal models of epilepsy and seizures, mostly involving mice and rats, are used to understand the pathophysiology of the different forms of epilepsy and their comorbidities, to identify biomarkers, and to discover new antiepileptic drugs and treatments for comorbidities. Such models represent an important area for application of the 3Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement of animal use). This report provides background information and recommendations aimed at minimising pain, suffering and distress in rodent models of epilepsy and seizures in order to improve animal welfare and optimise the quality of studies in this area. The report includes practical guidance on principles of choosing a model, induction procedures, in vivo recordings, perioperative care, welfare assessment, humane endpoints, social housing, environmental enrichment, reporting of studies and data sharing. In addition, some model-specific welfare considerations are discussed, and data gaps and areas for further research are identified. The guidance is based upon a systematic review of the scientific literature, survey of the international epilepsy research community, consultation with veterinarians and animal care and welfare officers, and the expert opinion and practical experience of the members of a Working Group convened by the United Kingdom's National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs).
Collapse
|
32
|
Gross D, Tolba RH. Ethics in Animal-Based Research. Eur Surg Res 2015; 55:43-57. [PMID: 25871531 DOI: 10.1159/000377721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, there have been a number of new demands and regulations which have reignited the discussion on ethics in animal-based research. In the light of this development, the present review first presents an overview of underlying core ethical questions and issues. This is followed by an outline of the current discussion on whether animals (used for experimentation) should have rights ascribed to them and whether animals need to have certain characteristics in order to be the beneficiaries of rights. The discourse on concepts of sentience and the 'sociozoological scale' in particular is mapped out in this regard. There follows an outline of relevant ethical positions and current moral approaches to animal-based research (animal rights position, utilitarianism, 'convergence position', intrinsic cultural value of fundamental research, 'contractarianism', anthropocentrism, principle of the three Rs).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Gross
- Institute for History, Theory and Ethics in Medicine, Medical School MTI II, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Graham ML, Prescott MJ. The multifactorial role of the 3Rs in shifting the harm-benefit analysis in animal models of disease. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 759:19-29. [PMID: 25823812 PMCID: PMC4441106 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Ethics on animal use in science in Western society is based on utilitarianism, weighing the harms and benefits to the animals involved against those of the intended human beneficiaries. The 3Rs concept (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) is both a robust framework for minimizing animal use and suffering (addressing the harms to animals) and a means of supporting high quality science and translation (addressing the benefits). The ambiguity of basic research performed early in the research continuum can sometimes make harm-benefit analysis more difficult since anticipated benefit is often an incremental contribution to a field of knowledge. On the other hand, benefit is much more evident in translational research aimed at developing treatments for direct application in humans or animals suffering from disease. Though benefit may be easier to define, it should certainly not be considered automatic. Issues related to model validity seriously compromise experiments and have been implicated as a major impediment in translation, especially in complex disease models where harms to animals can be intensified. Increased investment and activity in the 3Rs is delivering new research models, tools and approaches with reduced reliance on animal use, improved animal welfare, and improved scientific and predictive value.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melanie L Graham
- University of Minnesota, Department of Surgery, St. Paul, MN, USA; University of Minnesota, Veterinary Population Medicine Department, St. Paul, MN, USA.
| | - Mark J Prescott
- National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Wilson B, Smith K, Petkov CI. Mixed-complexity artificial grammar learning in humans and macaque monkeys: evaluating learning strategies. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 41:568-78. [PMID: 25728176 PMCID: PMC4493314 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Artificial grammars (AG) can be used to generate rule-based sequences of stimuli. Some of these can be used to investigate sequence-processing computations in non-human animals that might be related to, but not unique to, human language. Previous AG learning studies in non-human animals have used different AGs to separately test for specific sequence-processing abilities. However, given that natural language and certain animal communication systems (in particular, song) have multiple levels of complexity, mixed-complexity AGs are needed to simultaneously evaluate sensitivity to the different features of the AG. Here, we tested humans and Rhesus macaques using a mixed-complexity auditory AG, containing both adjacent (local) and non-adjacent (longer-distance) relationships. Following exposure to exemplary sequences generated by the AG, humans and macaques were individually tested with sequences that were either consistent with the AG or violated specific adjacent or non-adjacent relationships. We observed a considerable level of cross-species correspondence in the sensitivity of both humans and macaques to the adjacent AG relationships and to the statistical properties of the sequences. We found no significant sensitivity to the non-adjacent AG relationships in the macaques. A subset of humans was sensitive to this non-adjacent relationship, revealing interesting between- and within-species differences in AG learning strategies. The results suggest that humans and macaques are largely comparably sensitive to the adjacent AG relationships and their statistical properties. However, in the presence of multiple cues to grammaticality, the non-adjacent relationships are less salient to the macaques and many of the humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Wilson
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Henry Wellcome Building, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK; Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Durand E, Petit O, Tremblay L, Zimmer C, Sgambato-Faure V, Chassain C, Laurent M, Pereira B, Silberberg C, Durif F. Social behavioral changes in MPTP-treated monkey model of Parkinson's disease. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:42. [PMID: 25767440 PMCID: PMC4341564 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinsonian patients experience not only the physical discomfort of motor disorders but also the considerable psychological distress caused by cognitive deficits and behavioral disorders. These two factors can result in a disruption of social relationships during the symptomatic and even the presymptomatic motor states of the disease. However, it remains difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate social relationships in presymptomatic patients. The present study focused on the evaluation of social relationships within a group of female long-tailed macaques during presymptomatic and symptomatic motor states induced by Chronic Low-Dose (CLD) and then Chronic High-Dose (CHD) systemic administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-l,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Dopaminergic denervation within basal ganglia and cortical areas was evaluated using Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans with (18)F-DOPA (6-[18F]-fluoro-L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) radiotracer. Interestingly, social behavioral changes could be identified in the presymptomatic motor state before any motor and/or cognitive impairment occurred. Stronger effects were observed in subordinate animals compared to dominant animals. From baseline state to CLD-presymptomatic motor state, the frequency of emitted affiliative and aggressive behaviors increased. From CLD-presymptomatic to CHD-presymptomatic motor states, the frequency of the three categories of social behaviors (aggressive, submissive and affiliative) decreased. At this time, quantitative data analysis in PET scans highlighted a dopaminergic denervation in the insula and the posterior caudate nucleus. Finally, the frequency of the three categories of social behaviors decreased during the stable-symptomatic motor state compared to baseline and presymptomatic motor states; this was also associated with motor and cognitive disorders and a dopaminergic denervation in all the evaluated cortical and subcortical structures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Durand
- Université d'Auvergne Clermont 1, UFR Médecine, EA 7280 (NPsy-Sydo)Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Odile Petit
- Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, UMR 7178, CNRS-UDSStrasbourg, France
| | - Léon Tremblay
- Centre de Neurosciences Cognitives, UMR 5229 CNRS-Université Lyon 1Bron, France
| | - Cédric Zimmer
- Département Ecologie, Physiologie et Ethologie, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, UMR 7178, CNRS-UDSStrasbourg, France
| | | | - Carine Chassain
- CHU Clermont Ferrand, Gabriel MontpiedClermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Marlène Laurent
- Université d'Auvergne Clermont 1, UFR Médecine, EA 7280 (NPsy-Sydo)Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Bruno Pereira
- CHU Clermont Ferrand, Gabriel MontpiedClermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Céline Silberberg
- Université d'Auvergne Clermont 1, UFR Médecine, EA 7280 (NPsy-Sydo)Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Franck Durif
- Université d'Auvergne Clermont 1, UFR Médecine, EA 7280 (NPsy-Sydo)Clermont-Ferrand, France
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Hage SR, Ott T, Eiselt AK, Jacob SN, Nieder A. Ethograms indicate stable well-being during prolonged training phases in rhesus monkeys used in neurophysiological research. Lab Anim 2014; 48:82-7. [PMID: 24367036 DOI: 10.1177/0023677213514043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Awake, behaving rhesus monkeys are widely used in neurophysiological research. Neural signals are typically measured from monkeys trained with operant conditioning techniques to perform a variety of behavioral tasks in exchange for rewards. Over the past years, monkeys' psychological well-being during experimentation has become an increasingly important concern. We suggest objective criteria to explore whether training sessions during which the monkeys work under controlled water intake over many days might affect their behavior. With that aim, we analyzed a broad range of species-specific behaviors over several months ('ethogram') and used these ethograms as a proxy for the monkeys' well-being. Our results show that monkeys' behavior during training sessions is unaffected by the duration of training-free days in-between. Independently of the number of training-free days (two or nine days) with ad libitum food and water supply, the monkeys were equally active and alert in their home group cages during training phases. This indicates that the monkeys were well habituated to prolonged working schedules and that their well-being was stably ensured during the training sessions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steffen R Hage
- Animal Physiology, Institute of Neurobiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Decision making in avoidance–reward conflict: a paradigm for non-human primates and humans. Brain Struct Funct 2014; 220:2509-17. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-014-0796-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 05/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
38
|
Blakemore C, MaCarthur Clark J, Nevalainen T, Oberdorfer M, Sussman A. Implementing the 3Rs in neuroscience research: a reasoned approach. Neuron 2012; 75:948-50. [PMID: 22998864 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The 3Rs--replacement, reduction, and refinement--are aimed at minimizing the welfare costs to animals used in research. Some neuroscientists fear that implementing the 3Rs will prohibit essential studies. Others view them as fundamental ethical principles that improve the quality of research. A regulatory system that integrates science and welfare is most likely to deliver public confidence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Colin Blakemore
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy & Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Westlund K. Can conditioned reinforcers and Variable-Ratio Schedules make food- and fluid control redundant? A comment on the NC3Rs Working Group's report. J Neurosci Methods 2012; 204:202-205. [PMID: 21459109 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2011.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2011] [Accepted: 03/26/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This commentary challenges the conclusions of the NC3Rs Working Group's recent special report that food- or fluid control is sometimes necessary to conduct modern neuroscientific investigations in macaque monkeys (Prescott et al., 2010). Given the potential suffering of animals subjected to food- or fluid control, the decision to subject an animal to such practices should be taken hesitantly. That decision hinges on to which extent the animal is willing to be involved in the task. The authors have done a scientific literature search and express expert opinion, but fail to mention two techniques that may greatly influence the animals' motivation to participate in the task and thus reduce the need for food- or fluid control, namely (1) the use of conditioned reinforcers in addition to primary reinforcers; and (2) the use of Variable-Ratio Schedules rather than continuous reinforcement. An ethical and humane approach to animal experimentation suggests that all options should be explored and thoroughly investigated before resorting to methods potentially challenging the animals' welfare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Westlund
- The Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, Nobels v 18, 171 82 Solna, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Response to Westlund's commentary: ‘Can conditioned reinforcers and variable-Ratio Schedules make food- and fluid control redundant?’. J Neurosci Methods 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2011.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
41
|
Westlund K. Questioning the necessity of food– and fluid regimes: Reply to Prescott and colleagues’ response. J Neurosci Methods 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2011.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
42
|
Schmidlin E, Kaeser M, Gindrat AD, Savidan J, Chatagny P, Badoud S, Hamadjida A, Beaud ML, Wannier T, Belhaj-Saif A, Rouiller EM. Behavioral assessment of manual dexterity in non-human primates. J Vis Exp 2011:3258. [PMID: 22105161 PMCID: PMC3308590 DOI: 10.3791/3258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The corticospinal (CS) tract is the anatomical support of the exquisite motor ability to skillfully manipulate small objects, a prerogative mainly of primates1. In case of lesion affecting the CS projection system at its origin (lesion of motor cortical areas) or along its trajectory (cervical cord lesion), there is a dramatic loss of manual dexterity (hand paralysis), as seen in some tetraplegic or hemiplegic patients. Although there is some spontaneous functional recovery after such lesion, it remains very limited in the adult. Various therapeutic strategies are presently proposed (e.g. cell therapy, neutralization of inhibitory axonal growth molecules, application of growth factors, etc), which are mostly developed in rodents. However, before clinical application, it is often recommended to test the feasibility, efficacy, and security of the treatment in non-human primates. This is especially true when the goal is to restore manual dexterity after a lesion of the central nervous system, as the organization of the motor system of rodents is different from that of primates1,2. Macaque monkeys are illustrated here as a suitable behavioral model to quantify manual dexterity in primates, to reflect the deficits resulting from lesion of the motor cortex or cervical cord for instance, measure the extent of spontaneous functional recovery and, when a treatment is applied, evaluate how much it can enhance the functional recovery. The behavioral assessment of manual dexterity is based on four distinct, complementary, reach and grasp manual tasks (use of precision grip to grasp pellets), requiring an initial training of adult macaque monkeys. The preparation of the animals is demonstrated, as well as the positioning with respect to the behavioral set-up. The performance of a typical monkey is illustrated for each task. The collection and analysis of relevant parameters reflecting precise hand manipulation, as well as the control of force, are explained and demonstrated with representative results. These data are placed then in a broader context, showing how the behavioral data can be exploited to investigate the impact of a spinal cord lesion or of a lesion of the motor cortex and to what extent a treatment may enhance the spontaneous functional recovery, by comparing different groups of monkeys (treated versus sham treated for instance). Advantages and limitations of the behavioral tests are discussed. The present behavioral approach is in line with previous reports emphasizing the pertinence of the non-human primate model in the context of nervous system diseases2,3.
Collapse
|
43
|
Bichot NP, Heard MT, Desimone R. Stimulation of the nucleus accumbens as behavioral reward in awake behaving monkeys. J Neurosci Methods 2011; 199:265-72. [PMID: 21704383 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2011.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
It has been known that monkeys will repeatedly press a bar for electrical stimulation in several different brain structures. We explored the possibility of using electrical stimulation in one such structure, the nucleus accumbens, as a substitute for liquid reward in animals performing a complex task, namely visual search. The animals had full access to water in the cage at all times on days when stimulation was used to motivate them. Electrical stimulation was delivered bilaterally at mirror locations in and around the accumbens, and the animals' motivation to work for electrical stimulation was quantified by the number of trials they performed correctly per unit of time. Acute mapping revealed that stimulation over a large area successfully supported behavioral performance during the task. Performance improved with increasing currents until it reached an asymptotic, theoretically maximal level. Moreover, stimulation with chronically implanted electrodes showed that an animal's motivation to work for electrical stimulation was at least equivalent to, and often better than, when it worked for liquid reward while on water control. These results suggest that electrical stimulation in the accumbens is a viable method of reward in complex tasks. Because this method of reward does not necessitate control over water or food intake, it may offer an alternative to the traditional liquid or food rewards in monkeys, depending on the goals and requirements of the particular research project.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Narcisse P Bichot
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the ethical issues raised by the use of non-human primates (NHPs) in research involving scientific procedures which may cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm. It is not an exhaustive review of the literature and views on this subject, and it does not present any conclusions about the moral acceptability or otherwise of NHP research. Rather the aim has been to identify the ethical issues involved and to provide guidance on how these might be addressed, in particular by carefully examining the scientific rationale for NHP use, implementing fully the 3Rs principle of Russell and Burch (1959) and applying a robust "harm-benefit assessment" to research proposals involving NHPs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M J Prescott
- National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs), 20 Park Crescent, London, W1B 1AL, UK
| |
Collapse
|