1
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Jones EJ, Skinner BM, Parker A, Baldwin LR, Greenman J, Carding SR, Funnell SGP. An in vitro multi-organ microphysiological system (MPS) to investigate the gut-to-brain translocation of neurotoxins. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2024; 18:054105. [PMID: 39280192 PMCID: PMC11401645 DOI: 10.1063/5.0200459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/18/2024]
Abstract
The death of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra in the base of the brain is a defining pathological feature in the development of Parkinson's disease (PD). PD is, however, a multi-systemic disease, also affecting the peripheral nervous system and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) that interact via the gut-brain axis (GBA). Our dual-flow GIT-brain microphysiological system (MPS) was modified to investigate the gut-to-brain translocation of the neurotoxin trigger of PD, 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), and its impact on key GIT and brain cells that contribute to the GBA. The modular GIT-brain MPS in combination with quantitative and morphometric image analysis methods reproduces cell specific neurotoxin-induced dopaminergic cytotoxicity and mitochondria-toxicity with the drug having no detrimental impact on the viability or integrity of cellular membranes of GIT-derived colonic epithelial cells. Our findings demonstrate the utility and capability of the GIT-brain MPS for measuring neuronal responses and its suitability for identifying compounds or molecules produced in the GIT that can exacerbate or protect against neuronal inflammation and cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Jones
- Food, Microbiome and Health Research Programme, Quadram Institute, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin M Skinner
- School of Life Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
| | - Aimee Parker
- Food, Microbiome and Health Research Programme, Quadram Institute, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Lydia R Baldwin
- Centre of Biomedical Sciences, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - John Greenman
- Centre of Biomedical Sciences, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
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2
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Kulatunga DCM, Ranaraja U, Kim EY, Kim RE, Kim DE, Ji KB, Kim MK. A novel APP splice variant-dependent marker system to precisely demarcate maturity in SH-SY5Y cell-derived neurons. Sci Rep 2024; 14:12113. [PMID: 38802572 PMCID: PMC11130256 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-63005-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
SH-SY5Y, a neuroblastoma cell line, can be converted into mature neuronal phenotypes, characterized by the expression of mature neuronal and neurotransmitter markers. However, the mature phenotypes described across multiple studies appear inconsistent. As this cell line expresses common neuronal markers after a simple induction, there is a high chance of misinterpreting its maturity. Therefore, sole reliance on common neuronal markers is presumably inadequate. The Alzheimer's disease (AD) central gene, amyloid precursor protein (APP), has shown contrasting transcript variant dynamics in various cell types. We differentiated SH-SY5Y cells into mature neuron-like cells using a concise protocol and observed the upregulation of total APP throughout differentiation. However, APP transcript variant-1 was upregulated only during the early to middle stages of differentiation and declined in later stages. We identified the maturity state where this post-transcriptional shift occurs, terming it "true maturity." At this stage, we observed a predominant expression of mature neuronal and cholinergic markers, along with a distinct APP variant pattern. Our findings emphasize the necessity of using a differentiation state-sensitive marker system to precisely characterize SH-SY5Y differentiation. Moreover, this study offers an APP-guided, alternative neuronal marker system to enhance the accuracy of the conventional markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Chanuka M Kulatunga
- Laboratory of Animal Reproduction and Physiology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chungnam National University, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Umanthi Ranaraja
- Laboratory of Animal Reproduction and Physiology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chungnam National University, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | - Dong Ern Kim
- Laboratory of Animal Reproduction and Physiology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chungnam National University, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Kuk Bin Ji
- Laboratory of Animal Reproduction and Physiology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chungnam National University, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Kyu Kim
- Laboratory of Animal Reproduction and Physiology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chungnam National University, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, Republic of Korea.
- MK Biotech Inc., Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
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Matrella ML, Valletti A, Gigante I, De Rasmo D, Signorile A, Russo S, Lobasso S, Lobraico D, Dibattista M, Pacelli C, Cocco T. High OXPHOS efficiency in RA-FUdr-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells: involvement of cAMP signalling and respiratory supercomplexes. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7411. [PMID: 38548913 PMCID: PMC10978939 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57613-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurons are highly dependent on mitochondria to meet their bioenergetic needs and understanding the metabolic changes during the differentiation process is crucial in the neurodegeneration context. Several in vitro approaches have been developed to study neuronal differentiation and bioenergetic changes. The human SH-SY5Y cell line is a widely used cellular model and several differentiation protocols have been developed to induce a neuron-like phenotype including retinoic acid (RA) treatment. In this work we obtained a homogeneous functional population of neuron-like cells by a two-step differentiation protocol in which SH-SY5Y cells were treated with RA plus the mitotic inhibitor 2-deoxy-5-fluorouridine (FUdr). RA-FUdr treatment induced a neuronal phenotype characterized by increased expression of neuronal markers and electrical properties specific to excitable cells. In addition, the RA-FUdr differentiated cells showed an enrichment of long chain and unsaturated fatty acids (FA) in the acyl chain composition of cardiolipin (CL) and the bioenergetic analysis evidences a high coupled and maximal respiration associated with high mitochondrial ATP levels. Our results suggest that the observed high oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) capacity may be related to the activation of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) pathway and the assembly of respiratory supercomplexes (SCs), highlighting the change in mitochondrial phenotype during neuronal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Laura Matrella
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Alessio Valletti
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
- MASMEC Biomed S.p.A, 70026, Modugno, Italy
| | - Isabella Gigante
- National Institute of Gastroenterology- IRCCS "Saverio De Bellis", Via Turi 27, Castellana Grotte, 70013, Bari, Italy
| | - Domenico De Rasmo
- Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies, CNR-Institute of Biomembranes, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Anna Signorile
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Silvia Russo
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Simona Lobasso
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Donatella Lobraico
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Michele Dibattista
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Consiglia Pacelli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71122, Foggia, Italy.
| | - Tiziana Cocco
- Department of Translational Biomedicine and Neuroscience, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy.
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Pandey M, Karmakar V, Majie A, Dwivedi M, Md S, Gorain B. The SH-SY5Y cell line: a valuable tool for Parkinson's disease drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2024; 19:303-316. [PMID: 38112196 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2023.2293158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Owing to limited efficient treatment strategies for highly prevalent and distressing Parkinson's disease (PD), an impending need emerged for deciphering new modes and mechanisms for effective management. SH-SY5Y-based in vitro neuronal models have emerged as a new possibility for the elucidation of cellular and molecular processes in the pathogenesis of PD. SH-SY5Y cells are of human origin, adhered to catecholaminergic neuronal attributes, which consequences in imparting wide acceptance and significance to this model over conventional in vitro PD models for high-throughput screening of therapeutics. AREAS COVERED Herein, the authors review the SH-SY5Y cell line and its value to PD research. The authors also provide the reader with their expert perspectives on how these developments can lead to the development of new impactful therapeutics. EXPERT OPINION Encouraged by recent research on SH-SY5Y cell lines, it was envisaged that this in vitro model can serve as a primary model for assessing efficacy and toxicity of new therapeutics as well as for nanocarriers' capacity in delivering therapeutic agents across BBB. Considering the proximity with human neuronal environment as in pathogenic PD conditions, SH-SY5Y cell lines vindicated consistency and reproducibility in experimental results. Accordingly, exploitation of this standardized SH-SY5Y cell line can fast-track the drug discovery and development path for novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manisha Pandey
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, India
| | - Varnita Karmakar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India
| | - Ankit Majie
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India
| | - Monika Dwivedi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India
| | - Shadab Md
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bapi Gorain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India
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Kim T, Kim HS, Bang Y, Kwon Y, Kim J, Choi HJ, Suh YG. Identification of novel Nrf2-activating neuroprotective agents: Elucidation of structural congeners of (-)-galiellalactone and congener-based novel Nrf2 activators. Bioorg Chem 2024; 144:107109. [PMID: 38219480 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Herein, (-)-galiellalactone 1 congeners responsible for the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-activating neuroprotective effects were elucidated. Additionally, novel congener-based Nrf2 activators were identified using a drug repositioning strategy. (-)-Galiellalactone, which comprises a tricyclic lactone skeleton, significantly activates antioxidant response element (ARE)-mediated transcription in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Interestingly, two cyclohexene-truncated [3.3] bicyclic lactone analogs, which possess an exocyclic α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone moiety, exhibited higher Nrf2/ARE transcriptional activities than the parent (-)-galiellalactone. We confirmed that the cyclohexene moiety embedding the [3.3] bicyclic lactone congener does not play the essential role of (-)-galiellalactone for Nrf2/ARE activation. Nrf2/ARE activation by novel analogs resulted in the upregulation of downstream antioxidative and phase II detoxifying enzymes, heme oxygenase-1, and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1, which are closely related to the cytoprotective effects on neurodegenerative diseases. (-)-Galiellalactone and its [3.3] bicyclic variants 3l and 3p increased the expression of antioxidant genes and exhibited neuroprotective effects against 6-hydroxydopamine-mediated neurotoxicity in the neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taewoo Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CHA University, 120 Haeryong-ro, Pocheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 11160, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Su Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CHA University, 120 Haeryong-ro, Pocheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 11160, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeojin Bang
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CHA University, 120 Haeryong-ro, Pocheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 11160, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoonjung Kwon
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CHA University, 120 Haeryong-ro, Pocheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 11160, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinhee Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CHA University, 120 Haeryong-ro, Pocheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 11160, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jin Choi
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CHA University, 120 Haeryong-ro, Pocheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 11160, Republic of Korea.
| | - Young-Ger Suh
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CHA University, 120 Haeryong-ro, Pocheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 11160, Republic of Korea.
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6
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Fonódi M, Thalwieser Z, Csortos C, Boratkó A. TIMAP, a Regulatory Subunit of Protein Phosphatase 1, Inhibits In Vitro Neuronal Differentiation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17360. [PMID: 38139189 PMCID: PMC10744335 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
TIMAP (TGF-β-inhibited membrane associated protein) is abundant in endothelial cells, and it has been regarded as a member of the myosin phosphatase targeting protein (MYPT) family. Our workgroup previously identified several interacting protein partners of TIMAP and proved its regulatory subunit role for protein phosphatase 1 catalytic subunit (PP1c). TIMAP is also expressed in neuronal cells, but details of its function have not been studied yet. Therefore, we aimed to explore the role of TIMAP in neuronal cells, especially during differentiation. Expression of TIMAP was proved both at mRNA and protein levels in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells was optimized and proved by the detection of neuronal differentiation markers, such as β3-tubulin, nestin and inhibitor of differentiation 1 (ID1) using qPCR and Western blot. We found downregulation of TIMAP during differentiation. In accordance with this, overexpression of recombinant TIMAP attenuated the differentiation of neuronal cells. Moreover, the subcellular localization of TIMAP has changed during differentiation as it translocated from the plasma membrane into the nucleus. The nuclear interactome of TIMAP revealed more than 50 proteins, offering the possibility to further investigate the role of TIMAP in several key physiological pathways of neuronal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Anita Boratkó
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Egyetem Tér 1, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (M.F.); (Z.T.); (C.C.)
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7
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Dos Santos MG, Gomes JR, Costa MDM. Methods used to achieve different levels of the neuronal differentiation process in SH-SY5Y and Neuro2a cell lines: An integrative review. Cell Biol Int 2023; 47:1883-1894. [PMID: 37817323 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.12093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023]
Abstract
To study the process of neuronal differentiation, the human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) and the murine neuroblastoma (Neuro2a) cell lines have proven to be effective models. For this approach, different protocols involving known neurotrophic factors and other molecules, such as retinoic acid (RA), have been assessed to better understand the neuronal differentiation process. Thus, the goal of this manuscript was to provide a brief overview of recent studies that have used protocols to promote neurodifferentiation in SH-SY5Y and Neuro2a cell lines and used acquired morphology and neuronal markers to validate whether differentiation was effective. The published results supply some guidance regarding the relationship between RA and neurotrophins for SH-SY5Y, as well a serum concentrations for both cell lines. Furthermore, they demonstrate the potential application of Neuro2a, which is critical for future research on neuronal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mônica G Dos Santos
- Biomedical Science Postgraduate Program, State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil
| | - José R Gomes
- Biomedical Science Postgraduate Program, State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Michele D M Costa
- Biomedical Science Postgraduate Program, State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brazil
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8
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Mihailova L, Shalabalija D, Zimmer A, Geskovski N, Makreski P, Petrushevska M, Simonoska Crcarevska M, Glavas Dodov M. Comparative Studies of the Uptake and Internalization Pathways of Different Lipid Nano-Systems Intended for Brain Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2082. [PMID: 37631296 PMCID: PMC10458318 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15082082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipid nano-systems were prepared and characterized in a series of well-established in vitro tests that could assess their interactions with the hCMEC/D3 and SH-SY5Y cell lines as a model for the blood-brain barrier and neuronal function, accordingly. The prepared formulations of nanoliposomes and nanostructured lipid carriers were characterized by z-average diameters of ~120 nm and ~105 nm, respectively, following a unimodal particle size distribution (PDI < 0.3) and negative Z-potential (-24.30 mV to -31.20 mV). Stability studies implied that the nano-systems were stable in a physiologically relevant medium as well as human plasma, except nanoliposomes containing poloxamer on their surface, where there was an increase in particle size of ~26%. The presence of stealth polymer tends to decrease the amount of adsorbed proteins onto a particle's surface, according to protein adsorption studies. Both formulations of nanoliposomes were characterized by a low cytotoxicity, while their cell viability was reduced when incubated with the highest concentration (100 μg/mL) of nanostructured lipid formulations, which could have been associated with the consumption of cellular energy, thus resulting in a reduction in metabolic active cells. The uptake of all the nano-systems in the hCMEC/D3 and SH-SY5Y cell lines was successful, most likely following ATP-dependent internalization, as well as transport via passive diffusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljubica Mihailova
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Majka Tereza 47, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia; (L.M.); (D.S.); (N.G.); (M.S.C.); (M.G.D.)
| | - Dushko Shalabalija
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Majka Tereza 47, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia; (L.M.); (D.S.); (N.G.); (M.S.C.); (M.G.D.)
| | - Andreas Zimmer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Graz, Universitatplatz 1/EG, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Nikola Geskovski
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Majka Tereza 47, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia; (L.M.); (D.S.); (N.G.); (M.S.C.); (M.G.D.)
| | - Petre Makreski
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Arhimedova 5, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia;
| | - Marija Petrushevska
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, 50 Divizija 6, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia;
| | - Maja Simonoska Crcarevska
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Majka Tereza 47, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia; (L.M.); (D.S.); (N.G.); (M.S.C.); (M.G.D.)
| | - Marija Glavas Dodov
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Majka Tereza 47, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia; (L.M.); (D.S.); (N.G.); (M.S.C.); (M.G.D.)
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9
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Siano G, Madaro G, Caiazza MC, Allouch A, Varisco M, Mignanelli M, Cattaneo A, Di Primio C. Tau-dependent HDAC1 nuclear reduction is associated with altered VGluT1 expression. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1151223. [PMID: 37266450 PMCID: PMC10229822 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1151223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
During AD pathology, Tau protein levels progressively increase from early pathological stages. Tau altered expression causes an unbalance of Tau subcellular localization in the cytosol and in the nuclear compartment leading to synaptic dysfunction, neuronal cell death and neurodegeneration as a consequence. Due to the relevant role of epigenetic remodellers in synaptic activity in physiology and in neurodegeneration, in particular of TRIM28 and HDAC1, we investigated the relationship between Tau and these epigenetic factors. By molecular, imaging and biochemical approaches, here we demonstrate that Tau altered expression in the neuronal cell line SH-SY5y does not alter TRIM28 and HDAC1 expression but it induces a subcellular reduction of HDAC1 in the nuclear compartment. Remarkably, HDAC1 reduced activity modulates the expression of synaptic genes in a way comparable to that observed by Tau increased levels. These results support a competitive relationship between Tau levels and HDAC1 subcellular localization and nuclear activity, indicating a possible mechanism mediating the alternative role of Tau in the pathological alteration of synaptic genes expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Siano
- Laboratorio di Biologia Bio@SNS, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Madaro
- Laboratorio di Biologia Bio@SNS, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN), University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Claudia Caiazza
- Laboratorio di Biologia Bio@SNS, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Oxford Parkinson’s Disease Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Awatef Allouch
- Cell Death, Immunity and Therapeutic Innovation Team, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
| | - Martina Varisco
- Laboratorio di Biologia Bio@SNS, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Marianna Mignanelli
- Laboratorio di Biologia Bio@SNS, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Antonino Cattaneo
- Laboratorio di Biologia Bio@SNS, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Rita Levi-Montalcini European Brain Research Institute, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristina Di Primio
- Institute of Neuroscience, Italian National Research Council (CNR), Pisa, Italy
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10
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Cougnoux A, Pergande MR, Serna-Perez F, Cologna SM. Investigation of 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-Cyclodextrin Treatment in a Neuronal-Like Cell Model of Niemann-Pick Type C Using Quantitative Proteomics. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2023; 34:668-675. [PMID: 36920149 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.2c00342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Niemann-Pick, type C (NPC) is a fatal, neurovisceral lysosomal storage disorder with progressive neurodegeneration and no FDA-approved therapy. Significant efforts have been focused on the development of therapeutic options, and 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-b-CD) has emerged as a promising candidate. In cell culture, HP-b-CD ameliorates cholesterol storage in endo/lysosomes, a hallmark of the disorder. Furthermore, in animal studies, treatment with HP-b-CD delays neurodegeneration and extends lifespan. While HP-b-CD has been promising in vitro and in vivo, a clear understanding of the mechanism(s) of action is lacking. Utilizing a neuron-like cell culture model of SH-SY5Y differentiated cells and U18666A to induce the NPC phenotype, we report here a large-scale mass-spectrometry-based proteomic study to evaluate proteome changes upon treatment with these small molecules. In this study, we show that differentiated SH-SY5Y cells display morphological changes representative of neuronal-like cells along with increased levels of proliferation markers. Inhibition of the NPC cholesterol transporter 1 protein by U18666A resulted in increased levels of known NPC markers including SCARB2/LIMP2 and LAMP2. Finally, investigation of HP-b-CD treatment was performed where we observe that, although HP-b-CD reduces cholesterol storage, levels of NPC1 and NPC2 are not normalized to control levels. This finding further supports the need for a proteostasis strategy for NPC drug development. Moreover, proteins that were dysregulated in the U18666A model of NPC and normalized to control levels suggest that HP-b-CD promotes exocytosis in this neuron-like model. Utilizing state of the art mass spectrometry analysis, these data demonstrate newly reported changes with pharmacological perturbations related to NPC disease and provide insight into the mechanisms of HP-b-CD as a potential therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antony Cougnoux
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet and Science for Life Laboratory, Solna 171 65, Sweden
| | - Melissa R Pergande
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
| | - Fidel Serna-Perez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
| | - Stephanie M Cologna
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
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11
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Semi-Preparative Separation, Absolute Configuration, Stereochemical Stability and Effects on Human Neuronal Cells of MDPV Enantiomers. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28052121. [PMID: 36903367 PMCID: PMC10003790 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28052121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones, such as 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), are widely abused due to their psychostimulant effects. As they are chiral molecules, studies of their stereochemical stability (racemization can occur in certain temperatures and acidic/basic environments) and of their biological and/or toxicity effects (enantiomers might display different properties) are of great relevance. In this study, the liquid chromatography (LC) semi-preparative enantioresolution of MDPV was optimized to collect both enantiomers with high recovery rates and enantiomeric ratio (e.r.) values. The absolute configuration of the MDPV enantiomers was determined by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) with the aid of theoretical calculations. The first eluted enantiomer was identified as S-(-)-MDPV and the second eluted enantiomer was identified as R-(+)-MDPV. A racemization study was performed by LC-UV, showing enantiomers' stability up to 48 h at room temperature and 24 h at 37 °C. Racemization was only affected by higher temperatures. The potential enantioselectivity of MDPV in cytotoxicity and in the expression of neuroplasticity-involved proteins-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5)-was also evaluated using SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. No enantioselectivity was observed.
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Rodríguez JL, Berrios P, Clavo ZM, Marin-Bravo M, Inostroza-Ruiz L, Ramos-Gonzalez M, Quispe-Solano M, Fernández-Alfonso MS, Palomino O, Goya L. Chemical Characterization, Antioxidant Capacity and Anti-Oxidative Stress Potential of South American Fabaceae Desmodium tortuosum. Nutrients 2023; 15:nu15030746. [PMID: 36771451 PMCID: PMC9921092 DOI: 10.3390/nu15030746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been proposed that oxidative stress is a pathogenic mechanism to induce cytotoxicity and to cause cardiovascular and neuronal diseases. At present, natural compounds such as plant extracts have been used to reduce the cytotoxic effects produced by agents that induce oxidative stress. Our study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant and cytoprotective capacity of Desmodium tortuosum (D. tortuosum) extract in the co- and pre-treatment in EA.hy926 and SH-SY5Y cell lines subjected to oxidative stress induced by tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BOOH). Cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), caspase 3/7 activity, reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), and molecular expression of oxidative stress biomarkers (SOD2, NRF2 and NFκB1) and cell death (APAF1, BAX, Caspase3) were all evaluated. It was observed that the D. tortuosum extract, in a dose-dependent manner, was able to reduce the oxidative and cytotoxicity effects induced by t-BOOH, even normalized to a dose of 200 µg/mL, which would be due to the high content of phenolic compounds mainly phenolic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids and other antioxidant compounds. Finally, these results are indicators that the extract of D. tortuosum could be a natural alternative against the cytotoxic exposure to stressful and cytotoxic chemical agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- José-Luis Rodríguez
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15021, Peru
- Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Paola Berrios
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15021, Peru
| | - Zoyla-Mirella Clavo
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15021, Peru
| | - Manuel Marin-Bravo
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15021, Peru
| | - Luis Inostroza-Ruiz
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 15021, Peru
| | | | - Miguel Quispe-Solano
- Faculty of Engineering in Food Industries, Universidad Nacional del Centro del Perú, Huancayo 12006, Peru
| | | | - Olga Palomino
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Goya
- Department of Metabolism and Nutrition, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Institute of Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (ICTAN), Jose Antonio Novais 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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13
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Hoffmann LF, Martins A, Majolo F, Contini V, Laufer S, Goettert MI. Neural regeneration research model to be explored: SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Neural Regen Res 2022; 18:1265-1266. [PMID: 36453406 PMCID: PMC9838160 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.358621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lavynia Ferreira Hoffmann
- Graduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Vale do Taquari (Univates), Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Martins
- Graduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Vale do Taquari (Univates), Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Majolo
- Graduate Program in Medical Sciences - PPGCM, University of Vale do Taquari - Univates, Lajeado/RS, Brazil
| | - Verônica Contini
- Graduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Vale do Taquari (Univates), Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,Graduate Program in Medical Sciences - PPGCM, University of Vale do Taquari - Univates, Lajeado/RS, Brazil
| | - Stefan Laufer
- Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry and Tűbingen Center for Academic Drug Discovery - TÜCADD, Eberhard Karls University Tűbingen, Tűbingen, Germany
| | - Márcia Inês Goettert
- Graduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Vale do Taquari (Univates), Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,Graduate Program in Medical Sciences - PPGCM, University of Vale do Taquari - Univates, Lajeado/RS, Brazil,Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry and Tűbingen Center for Academic Drug Discovery - TÜCADD, Eberhard Karls University Tűbingen, Tűbingen, Germany,Correspondence to: Márcia Inês Goettert, or .
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The Therapeutic Potential of Naturally Occurring Peptides in Counteracting SH-SY5Y Cells Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911778. [PMID: 36233079 PMCID: PMC9569762 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptides have revealed a large range of biological activities with high selectivity and efficiency for the development of new drugs, including neuroprotective agents. Therefore, this work investigates the neuroprotective properties of naturally occurring peptides, endomorphin-1 (EM-1), endomorphin-2 (EM-2), rubiscolin-5 (R-5), and rubiscolin-6 (R-6). We aimed at answering the question of whether well-known opioid peptides can counteract cell injury in a common in vitro model of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Antioxidant activity of these four peptides was evaluated by the 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) scavenging activity, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays, while neuroprotective effects were assessed in a neurotoxic model induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in a human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y). The mechanisms associated with neuroprotection were investigated by the determination of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and Caspase-3 activity. Among the tested peptides, endomorphins significantly prevented neuronal death induced by 6-OHDA treatment, decreasing MMP (EM-1) or Caspase-3 activity (EM-2). Meanwhile, R-6 showed antioxidant potential by FRAP assay and exhibited the highest capacity to recover the neurotoxicity induced by 6-OHDA via attenuation of ROS levels and mitochondrial dysfunction. Generally, we hypothesize that peptides’ ability to suppress the toxic effect induced by 6-OHDA may be mediated by different cellular mechanisms. The protective effect caused by endomorphins results in an antiapoptotic effect (mitochondrial protection and decrease in Caspase-3 activity), while R-6 potency to increase a cell’s viability seems to be mediated by reducing oxidative stress. Our results may provide new insight into neurodegeneration and support the short peptides as a potent drug candidate to treat PD. However, further studies should be conducted on the detailed mechanisms of how tested peptides could suppress neuronal injuries.
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Kong X, Liang H, Zhou K, Wang H, Li D, Zhang S, Sun N, Gong M, Zhou Y, Zhang Q. Deciphering the Heterogeneity of the Internal Environment of Hippocampal Neurons during Maturation by Raman Spectroscopy. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:30571-30581. [PMID: 36061692 PMCID: PMC9435027 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c04188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Hippocampal neurons are sensitive to changes in the internal environment and play a significant role in controlling learning, memory, and emotions. A remarkable characteristic of the aging brain is its ability to shift from a state of normal inflammation to excessive inflammation. Various cognitive abilities of the elderly may suffer from serious harm due to the change in the neural environment. Hippocampal neurons may have various subsets involved in controlling their internal environment at different stages of development. Developmental differences may eventually result from complex changes in the dynamic neuronal system brought on by metabolic changes. In this study, we used an in vitro hippocampal neuron model cultured in C57BL/6J mice in conjugation with Raman spectroscopy to examine the relative alterations in potential biomarkers, such as levels of metabolites in the internal environment of hippocampal neurons at various developmental stages. The various differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of hippocampal neurons at various developmental stages were simultaneously screened using bioinformatics, and the biological functions as well as the various regulatory pathways of DEGs were preliminarily analyzed, providing an essential reference for investigating novel therapeutic approaches for diseases that cause cognitive impairment, such as Alzheimer's disease. A stable hippocampal neuron model was established using the GIBCO C57BL/6J hippocampal neuron cell line as a donor and in vitro hippocampal neuron culture technology. The Raman peak intensities of culture supernatants from the experimental groups incubated for 0, 7, and 14 days in vitro(DIV) were examined. The GEO database was used to screen for different DEGs associated with various developmental stages. The data was then analyzed using a statistical method called orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The levels of ketogenic and glycogenic amino acids (such as tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine), lipid intake rate, glucose utilization rate, and nucleic acid expression in the internal environment of hippocampal neurons were significantly different in the 14 DIV group compared to the 0 DIV and 7 DIV groups (P < 0.01). The top 10 DEGs with neuronal maturation were screened, and the results were compared to the OPLS-DA model's analysis of the differential peaks. It was found that different genes involved in maturation can directly relate to changes in the body's levels of ketogenic and glycogenic amino acids (P < 0.01). The altered expression of the maturation-related genes epidermal growth factor receptor, protein tyrosine kinase 2-beta, discs large MAGUK scaffold protein 2, and Ras protein-specific guanine nucleotide releasing factor 1 may be connected to the altered uptake of ketogenic and glycogenic amino acids and nucleic acids in the internal environment of neurons at different developmental stages. The levels of ketogenic, glycogenic amino acids, and lipid intake increased while glucose utilization decreased, which may be related to mature neurons' metabolism and energy use. The decline in nucleic acid consumption could be connected to synaptic failure. The Raman spectroscopy fingerprint results of relevant biomarkers in conjugation with multivariable analysis and biological action targets suggested by differential genes interpret the heterogeneity of the internal environment of mature hippocampal neurons in the process of maturation, open a new idea for exploring the dynamic mechanism of the exchange energy metabolism of information molecules in the internal environment of hippocampal neurons, and provide a new method for studying this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Kong
- Department
of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University
General Hospital, Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Haoyue Liang
- State
Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research
Center for Blood Diseases, Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, Institute of Hematology and Blood Diseases Hospital,
Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300020, China
| | - Kexuan Zhou
- Department
of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University
General Hospital, Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Haoyu Wang
- State
Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research
Center for Blood Diseases, Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, Institute of Hematology and Blood Diseases Hospital,
Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300020, China
| | - Dai Li
- Department
of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University
General Hospital, Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Shishuang Zhang
- Department
of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University
General Hospital, Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Ning Sun
- Department
of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University
General Hospital, Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Min Gong
- Department
of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Yuan Zhou
- State
Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research
Center for Blood Diseases, Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, Institute of Hematology and Blood Diseases Hospital,
Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300020, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Department
of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University
General Hospital, Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
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Theiss EL, Griebsch LV, Lauer AA, Janitschke D, Erhardt VKJ, Haas EC, Kuppler KN, Radermacher J, Walzer O, Portius D, Grimm HS, Hartmann T, Grimm MOW. Vitamin B12 Attenuates Changes in Phospholipid Levels Related to Oxidative Stress in SH-SY5Y Cells. Cells 2022; 11:cells11162574. [PMID: 36010649 PMCID: PMC9406929 DOI: 10.3390/cells11162574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is closely linked to Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and is detected peripherally as well as in AD-vulnerable brain regions. Oxidative stress results from an imbalance between the generation and degradation of reactive oxidative species (ROS), leading to the oxidation of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Extensive lipid changes have been found in post mortem AD brain tissue; these changes include the levels of total phospholipids, sphingomyelin, and ceramide, as well as plasmalogens, which are highly susceptible to oxidation because of their vinyl ether bond at the sn-1 position of the glycerol-backbone. Several lines of evidence indicate that a deficiency in the neurotropic vitamin B12 is linked with AD. In the present study, treatment of the neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y with vitamin B12 resulted in elevated levels of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingomyelin, and plasmalogens. Vitamin B12 also protected plasmalogens from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced oxidative stress due to an elevated expression of the ROS-degrading enzymes superoxide-dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). Furthermore, vitamin B12 elevates plasmalogen synthesis by increasing the expression of alkylglycerone phosphate synthase (AGPS) and choline phosphotransferase 1 (CHPT1) in SH-SY5Y cells exposed to H2O2-induced oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Oliver Walzer
- Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, 66424 Homburg, Germany
| | - Dorothea Portius
- Nutrition Therapy and Counseling, Campus Gera, SRH University of Applied Health Science, 07548 Gera, Germany
| | | | - Tobias Hartmann
- Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, 66424 Homburg, Germany
- Deutsches Institut für DemenzPrävention, Saarland University, 66424 Homburg, Germany
| | - Marcus Otto Walter Grimm
- Experimental Neurology, Saarland University, 66424 Homburg, Germany
- Deutsches Institut für DemenzPrävention, Saarland University, 66424 Homburg, Germany
- Nutrition Therapy and Counseling, Campus Rheinland, SRH University of Applied Health Sciences, 51377 Leverkusen, Germany
- Correspondence: or
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Overexpression of Neuroglobin Promotes Energy Metabolism and Autophagy Induction in Human Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y Cells. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123394. [PMID: 34943907 PMCID: PMC8699457 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroglobin (NGB) is an O2-binding globin mainly expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems and cerebrospinal fluid. Previously, it was demonstrated that NGB overexpression protects cells from hypoxia-induced death. To investigate processes promoted by NGB overexpression, we used a cellular model of neuroblastoma stably overexpressing an NGB-FLAG construct. We used a proteomic approach to identify the specific profile following NGB overexpression. To evaluate the role of NGB overexpression in increasing energetic metabolism, we measured oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and the extracellular acidification rate through Seahorse XF technology. The effect on autophagy induction was evaluated by analyzing SQSTM1/p62 and LC3-II expression. Proteomic analysis revealed several differentially regulated proteins, involved in oxidative phosphorylation and integral mitochondrial proteins linked to energy metabolism. The analysis of mitochondrial metabolism demonstrated that NGB overexpression increases mitochondrial ATP production. Indeed, NGB overexpression enhances bioenergetic metabolism, increasing OCR and oxygen consumption. Analysis of autophagy induction revealed an increase of LC3-II together with a significant decrease of SQSTM1/p62, and NGB-LC3-II association during autophagosome formation. These results highlight the active participation of NGB in several cellular processes that can be upregulated in response to NGB overexpression, playing a role in the adaptive response to stress in neuroblastoma cells.
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