Initiative to Improve Exclusive Breastfeeding by Delaying the Newborn Bath

Health Professionals' Knowledge and Attitudes About Neonatal Bathing and Factors Affecting Them: A Cross-Sectional Study

In pediatrics, the knowledge and approach of health professionals in bathing, which are one of the first care of the newborn, are important in the initiation and continuation of care by transferring it to parents. The aim of the study was to determine the knowledge, attitudes, and influencing factors of health professionals about newborn bathing. This descriptive and cross-sectional study was conducted with 140 health professionals working in neonatology between March and June 2023. Data were collected and analyzed using the "Participant description form" and "Knowledge and Attitudes Form on Newborn Bathing." Since there is no equivalent measurement tool in the literature, the Knowledge and Attitude Form on Newborn Bathing was designed and submitted for expert assessment. A final version with 21 items questioning knowledge (15 items) and attitude (6 items) was completed. The cutoff point in the form was determined as the correct response of 16 items (12 items or more for the knowledge and 4 items or more for the attitude section). Descriptive and comparative analyses were performed on the data. Significance was evaluated at 95% confidence interval. A total of 140 health professionals with a mean age of 31.4 years participated in the study. The first bath of the newborn was reported to be a wipe/sponge bath with 80% and 68.6% reported that the first bath should be with water only. About 70% reported that there were clues indicating that the newborn was ready for bathing and the first clues were absorption of vernix caseosa (22.6%) and umbilical cord shedding (11.9%). According to the answers of the Knowledge and Attitudes Form on Newborn Bathing, 74.3% of the participants had sufficient knowledge about bathing. A statistically significant difference was found between gender, occupation, education, institution, clinic, working time, and knowledge adequacy (p < 0.05). Although bathing seems harmless, it is ill-advised when it comes to newborns. The study determined that health professionals possess sufficient knowledge about newborn bathing. We recommend studies be conducted on how health professionals transfer their knowledge to mothers with new babies and how mothers apply their instructions and advice.

Effectiveness of Delayed First Baths on Transepidermal Water Loss in Late Preterm Infants: A Randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE

This study evaluates whether delaying the first bath affects late preterm infants' skin barriers, body temperatures, and comfort.

BACKGROUND

Late preterm infants' skin is drier and has a limited water retention capacity compared to term infants and adults. It is important to determine timing of care for this population with limited competencies.

METHODS

A two-arm, three-center, and single- and evaluator-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted. The study is based on the CONSORT guidelines. The participants were recruited from September 2020 to September 2021. The first baths of participants in the intervention group were postponed until 48 hours after birth. Outcomes were measured before bathing and 1, 10, and 30 minutes after bathing.

RESULTS

There was a statistically significant interaction between the groups and times for transepidermal water loss, body temperature, and comfort. The intervention group had a lower transepidermal water loss value at follow-up than the control group in the forearm and sternum. The control group had lower mean body temperatures and comfort levels.

CONCLUSION

When the first bathing of a late preterm infant is postponed by a minimum of 48 hours, it reduces damage to the skin barrier, body temperature is maintained, and the experience is more comfortable. Therefore, the first bath should be delayed for at least 48 hours after birth.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

The study can guide nurses to eliminate the uncertainty of the first bath applied for late preterm infants with a fragile structure in the neonatal intensive care setting and to eliminate the differences between clinics.

Timing of first bath in term healthy newborns: A systematic review

Background

This systematic review of intervention trials and observational studies assessed the effect of delaying the first bath for at least 24 hours after birth, compared to conducting it within the first 24 hours, in term healthy newborns.

Methods

We searched MEDLINE via PubMed, Cochrane CENTRAL, Embase, CINAHL (updated till November 2021), and clinical trials databases and reference lists of retrieved articles. Key outcomes were neonatal mortality, systemic infections, hypothermia, hypoglycaemia, and exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) rates. Two authors separately evaluated the risk of bias, extracted data, and synthesized effect estimates using relative risk (RR) or odds ratio (OR). The GRADE approach was used to assess the certainty of evidence.

Results

We included 16 studies (two trials and 14 observational studies) involving 39 020 term or near-term healthy newborns. Delayed and early baths were defined variably in the studies, most commonly as >24 hours (six studies) and as ≤6 hours (12 studies), respectively. We performed a post-hoc analysis for studies that defined early bath as ≤6 hours. Low certainty evidence suggested that bathing the newborn 24 hours after birth might reduce the risk of infant mortality (OR = 0.46, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.28 to 0.77; one study, 789 participants) and neonatal hypothermia (OR = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.28-0.88; one study, 660 newborns), compared to bathing within first 24 hours. The evidence on the effect on EBF at discharge was very uncertain. Delayed bath beyond 6 hours (at or after nine, 12, or 24 hours) after birth compared to that within 6 hours might reduce the risk of hypothermia (OR = 0.47, 95% CI = 0.36-0.61; four studies, 2711 newborns) and hypoglycaemia (OR = 0.39, 95% CI = 0.23-0.66; three studies, 2775 newborns) and improve the incidence of EBF at discharge (OR = 1.12, 95% CI = 1.08-1.34; six studies, 6768 newborns); the evidence of the effect on neonatal mortality was very uncertain.

Conclusion

Delayed first bath for at least 24 hours may reduce infant mortality and hypothermia. Delayed bath for at least 6 hours may prevent hypothermia and hypoglycaemia and improve EBF rates at discharge. However, most of these conclusions are limited by low certainty evidence.

Registration

PROSPERO 2020 CRD42020177430.

Technical Report: Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk

Breastfeeding and human milk are the normative standards for infant feeding and nutrition. The short- and long-term medical and neurodevelopmental advantages of breastfeeding make breastfeeding or the provision of human milk a public health imperative. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends exclusive breastfeeding for approximately 6 months after birth. Furthermore, the AAP supports continued breastfeeding, along with appropriate complementary foods introduced at about 6 months, as long as mutually desired by mother and child for 2 years or beyond. These recommendations are consistent with those of the World Health Organization (WHO). Medical contraindications to breastfeeding are rare. The AAP recommends that birth hospitals or centers implement maternity care practices shown to improve breastfeeding initiation, duration, and exclusivity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and The Joint Commission monitor breastfeeding practices in United States hospitals. Pediatricians play a critical role in hospitals, their practices, and communities as advocates of breastfeeding and, thus, need to be trained about the benefits of breastfeeding for mothers and children and in managing breastfeeding. Efforts to improve breastfeeding rates must acknowledge existing disparities and the impact of racism in promoting equity in breastfeeding education, support, and services.

Policy Statement: Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk

Breastfeeding and human milk are the normative standards for infant feeding and nutrition. The short- and long-term medical and neurodevelopmental advantages of breastfeeding make breastfeeding, or the provision of human milk, a public health imperative. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends exclusive breastfeeding for approximately 6 months after birth. Furthermore, the AAP supports continued breastfeeding, along with appropriate complementary foods introduced at about 6 months, as long as mutually desired by mother and child for 2 years or beyond. These recommendations are consistent with those of the World Health Organization (WHO). Medical contraindications to breastfeeding are rare. The AAP recommends that birth hospitals or centers implement maternity care practices shown to improve breastfeeding initiation, duration, and exclusivity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and The Joint Commission monitor breastfeeding practices in US hospitals. Pediatricians play a critical role in hospitals, their practices, and communities as advocates of breastfeeding and, thus, need to be trained about the benefits of breastfeeding for mothers and children and in managing breastfeeding.

Risks of Infectious Diseases in Newborns Exposed to Alternative Perinatal Practices

The purpose of this report is to educate providers about the risk of infectious diseases associated with emerging alternative peripartum and neonatal practices. This report will provide information pediatricians may use to counsel families before birth and to appropriately evaluate and treat neonates who have been exposed to these practices.

The impact of coronavirus outbreak on breastfeeding guidelines among Brazilian hospitals and maternity services: a cross-sectional study

Background

The World Health Organization recognizes exclusive breastfeeding a safe source of nutrition available for children in most humanitarian emergencies, as in the current pandemic caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Despite the Brazilian national guideline protecting breastfeeding practices, there are many concerns about protecting infants from their infected mothers. This study aimed to analyze how the Brazilian hospitals and maternity services promote and support mothers suspected or diagnosed with coronavirus disease (COVID-19).

Methods

This is a descriptive cross-sectional and multicenter study which collected data from 24 Brazilian hospitals and maternity services between March and July 2020. Representatives of the institutions completed a questionnaire based on acts to promote and support breastfeeding, the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, and Brazil’s federal law recommendations.

Results

The results showed that in delivery rooms, 98.5% of the services prohibited immediate and uninterrupted skin-to-skin contact between mothers and their infants and did not support mothers to initiate breastfeeding in the first hour. On the postnatal ward, 98.5% of the services allowed breastfeeding while implementing respiratory hygiene practices to prevent transmission of COVID-19. Companions for mothers were forbidden in 83.3% of the hospitals. Hospital discharge was mostly between 24 and 28 h (79.1%); discharge guidelines were not individualized. Additionally, a lack of support was noticed from the home environment’s health community network (83.3%). Hospital and home breast pumping were allowed (87.5%), but breast milk donation was not accepted (95.8%). There was a lack of guidance regarding the use of infant comforting strategies. Guidelines specific for vulnerable populations were not covered in the material evaluated.

Conclusions

In Brazil, hospitals have not followed recommendations to protect, promote, and support breastfeeding during the COVID-19 outbreak. The disagreement between international guidelines has been a major issue. The absence of recommendations on breastfeeding support during the pandemic led to difficulties in developing standards among hospitals in different regions of Brazil and other countries worldwide. The scientific community needs to discuss how to improve maternal and infant care services to protect breastfeeding in the current pandemic.

Outcomes of Neonates Born to Mothers With Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection at a Large Medical Center in New York City

IMPORTANCE

Limited data on vertical and perinatal transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and health outcomes of neonates born to mothers with symptomatic or asymptomatic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are available. Studies are needed to inform evidence-based infection prevention and control (IP&C) policies.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the outcomes of neonates born to mothers with perinatal SARS-CoV-2 infection and the IP&C practices associated with these outcomes.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This retrospective cohort analysis reviewed the medical records for maternal and newborn data for all 101 neonates born to 100 mothers positive for or with suspected SARS-CoV-2 infection from March 13 to April 24, 2020. Testing for SARS-CoV-2 was performed using Cobas (Roche Diagnostics) or Xpert Xpress (Cepheid) assays. Newborns were admitted to well-baby nurseries (WBNs) (82 infants) and neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) (19 infants) in 2 affiliate hospitals at a large academic medical center in New York, New York. Newborns from the WBNs roomed-in with their mothers, who were required to wear masks. Direct breastfeeding after appropriate hygiene was encouraged.

EXPOSURES

Perinatal exposure to maternal asymptomatic/mild vs severe/critical COVID-19.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was newborn SARS-CoV-2 testing results. Maternal COVID-19 status was classified as asymptomatic/mildly symptomatic vs severe/critical. Newborn characteristics and clinical courses were compared across maternal COVID-19 severity.

RESULTS

In total, 141 tests were obtained from 101 newborns (54 girls [53.5%]) on 0 to 25 days of life (DOL-0 to DOL-25) (median, DOL-1; interquartile range [IQR], DOL-1 to DOL-3). Two newborns had indeterminate test results, indicative of low viral load (2.0%; 95% CI, 0.2%-7.0%); 1 newborn never underwent retesting but remained well on follow-up, and the other had negative results on retesting. Maternal severe/critical COVID-19 was associated with newborns born approximately 1 week earlier (median gestational age, 37.9 [IQR, 37.1-38.4] vs 39.1 [IQR, 38.3-40.2] weeks; P = .02) and at increased risk of requiring phototherapy (3 of 10 [30.0%] vs 6 of 91 [7.0%]; P = .04) compared with newborns of mothers with asymptomatic/mild COVID-19. Fifty-five newborns were followed up in a new COVID-19 Newborn Follow-up Clinic at DOL-3 to DOL-10 and remained well. Twenty of these newborns plus 3 newborns followed up elsewhere had 32 nonroutine encounters documented at DOL-3 to DOL-25, and none had evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection, including 6 with negative retesting results.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

No clinical evidence of vertical transmission was identified in 101 newborns of mothers positive for or with suspected SARS-CoV-2 infection, despite most newborns rooming-in and direct breastfeeding practices.

An Organization-Wide Initiative to Implement Parent-Performed, Delayed Immersion Bathing

OBJECTIVE

To implement an organization-wide evidence-based practice change to parent-performed, delayed immersion newborn bathing across nine facilities at a military health care system.

DESIGN

Organization-wide evidence-based practice initiative using preimplementation and postimplementation data.

SETTING

A military health system consisting of four medical centers and five community hospitals that averages 4,000 births each year.

PARTICIPANTS

Term newborns (≥37 weeks gestation) born within the nine facilities.

INTERVENTION/MEASUREMENTS

Champions were identified at each facility to change bathing practice. Baths for newborns were delayed until 24 hours of age, unless otherwise requested. Parents were instructed how to tub bathe their newborn and encouraged to complete the bath in less than 5 minutes. The team reviewed 100 records from each hospital and compared pre- and postimplementation temperature data.

RESULTS

The organization-wide practice change showed a statistically significant association between time point (i.e., before vs. after implementation) and postbathing hypothermia (χ² = 30.91, p < .001). In addition, data also showed fewer hypothermic temperature readings (i.e., <97.7 °F [<36.5 °C]) from the onset of birth until 8 hours of life with the new bathing process. Although this difference was not statistically significant (p = .11), it holds clinical significance if it can be replicated; newborn hypothermia requires provider notification and can lead to additional testing to rule out infection and other concerns.

CONCLUSION

Delaying newborns' first bath was associated with a significant decrease in the number of newborns who had hypothermic temperature readings immediately after the bath. The intervention involved minimal cost with multiple benefits. Delayed immersion bathing is a family-friendly process that can be implemented across an organization.

The effect of delaying first bathing on skin barrier function in late preterm infants: A study protocol for multi-centre, single-blind RCT

AIMS

The study aims to examine the effect of delaying first bathing on skin barrier function, body temperature, and neonatal comfort of late preterm infants.

DESIGN

This study is a multi-centre, single-blind, prospective randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

We attempt to report this randomized controlled trial to comply with the SPIRIT. The study population will consist of 80 late preterm infants born at three centres (hospitals) in Turkey. The study, between September 2020-September 2021 will be held in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. The participants will be randomly divided into two groups, each with different bathing times. The first group (N = 40) will be bathed between 24-48 hr after birth and the second group (N = 40) will be bathed between 48-72 hr after birth. Each group's intervention will be performed by a blinded researcher. The infants' transepidermal water loss, body temperature, and comfort level will be measured before the bath and again at three times after the bath. The measurements will be taken by a blinded researcher and blinded nurse.

DISCUSSION

The benefits of infant bathing are known. However, the effect of delaying first bathing of late preterm infants on skin barrier function is unknown. At the same time, the effect of delaying bathing on maintaining body temperature and neonatal comfort is unknown.

IMPACT

This study is expected to provide a piece of credible evidence of the delay of first bathing and benefit of neonatal care in this population. It is thought that postponing bathing time of late preterm infants to 48-72 hr after birth will lead to a protective effect on skin barrier and temperature. It will be performed in clinical practice if it can effectively improve transepidermal water loss and heat loss.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

It was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov in January 2020 (NCT04231799).

A review of newborn outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic

As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to spread worldwide, it is crucial that we determine populations that are at-risk and develop appropriate clinical care policies to protect them. While several respiratory illnesses are known to seriously impact pregnant women and newborns, preliminary data on the novel SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus suggest that these groups are no more at-risk than the general population. Here, we review the available literature on newborns born to infected mothers and show that newborns of mothers with positive/suspected SARS-CoV-2 infection rarely acquire the disease or show adverse clinical outcomes. With this evidence in mind, it appears that strict postnatal care policies, including separating mothers and newborns, discouraging breastfeeding, and performing early bathing, may be more likely to adversely impact newborns than they are to reduce the low risk of maternal transmission of SARS-CoV-2 or the even lower risk of severe COVID-19 disease in otherwise healthy newborns.

Effects of Delayed Newborn Bathing on Breastfeeding, Hypothermia, and Hypoglycemia

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether delaying the newborn bath by 24 hours increases the prevalence of breastfeeding initiation and exclusive breastfeeding at discharge in healthy full-term and late preterm newborns (34 0/7-36 6/7 weeks gestation) and to examine the effect of delayed newborn bathing on the incidences of hypothermia and hypoglycemia.

DESIGN

Pre-post implementation, retrospective, cohort study.

SETTING

Provincial children's hospital with an average of 2,500 births per year.

PARTICIPANTS

Healthy newborns (N = 1,225) born at 34 0/7 weeks or more gestation who were admitted to the mother-baby unit.

METHODS

We compared newborns who were bathed before 24 hours (n = 680, preimplementation group) to newborns who were bathed after 24 hours (n = 545, postimplementation group).

RESULTS

After adjustment for confounders, the odds of exclusive breastfeeding at discharge were 33% greater in the postimplementation group than in the preimplementation group (adjusted odds ratio = 1.334; 95% confidence interval [1.049,1.698]; p = .019). Delayed bathing was associated with decreased incidence of hypothermia and hypoglycemia (p = .007 and p = .003, respectively). We observed no difference in breastfeeding initiation between groups.

CONCLUSION

Delaying the newborn bath for 24 hours was associated with an increased likelihood of exclusive breastfeeding at discharge and a decreased incidence of hypothermia and hypoglycemia in healthy newborns. The implementation of a delayed bathing policy has the potential to improve breastfeeding rates and reduce the incidence of hypothermia and hypoglycemia.

Infant skin care: updates and recommendations

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Neonatal skin acclimates rapidly to dry, aerobic conditions at birth and skin function gradually matures throughout infancy. Gentle skin care practices support the ongoing development and function of newborn skin. This article reviews research updates and current skin care recommendations for full-term infants, premature infants, and infants born with severe cutaneous manifestations of genetic skin disorders.

RECENT FINDINGS

Although safe early bathing of full-term infants with environmental controls is possible, delaying the first newborn bath for 12-24 h of life offers benefits of increased parental bonding and breastfeeding success. Swaddled bathing every 4 days is an effective bathing strategy for premature neonates. Among infants with a family history of atopic dermatitis, regular application of bland skin moisturizers reduces their risk of developing the disease. For newborns with erosive or blistering genetic skin conditions, use of specialized wound dressings and emollients promotes wound healing and helps limit skin damage. Environmental control with humidified incubators helps prevent life-threatening hypernatremic dehydration among babies born with collodion membranes; however, affected infants can tolerate breaks outside of the humidifier to promote parent-infant bonding.

SUMMARY

This article reviews infant skin care recommendations relevant to pediatric practice. Research to further optimize newborn skin care is ongoing, particularly, for the special populations of premature neonates and infants born with severe skin disease.