Exploration of electrostatic interaction in the hydrophobic pocket of lysozyme: Importance of ligand-induced perturbation of the secondary structure on the mode of binding of exogenous ligand and possible consequences

Multi-approach study on diethylhexyl phthalate and monoethylhexyl phthalate binding to lysozyme: In silico, bioactivity and surface plasmon resonance analyses

Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and its metabolite monoethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) are recognized as endocrine disruptors with significant toxicological effects on various human physiological systems. While previous research has explored phthalate-protein interactions, there is a notable gap in studies focusing on the interaction between these endocrine disruptors and lysozyme (LZM), a critical component of the immune system. This study aimed to investigate the interactions of DEHP and MEHP with chicken egg white lysozyme (CEWLZM) using molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, bioactivity and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analyses to evaluate the molecular mechanisms, binding affinity, kinetic properties and bioactivity effects of these interactions. Complementary insights from molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations indicate that DEHP has a stronger binding affinity for CEWLZM than MEHP. This affinity value was corroborated by an intense hydrophobic and van der Waals interaction network especially maintained by the active residue Leu75 and Asp101-Ala107. Although MEHP did not exhibit a significant effect on enzyme activity in lysozyme bioactivity assay, DEHP inhibited lysozyme with an IC50 value of 453 µM. SPR analysis revealed that DEHP exhibits a significantly stronger binding affinity to CEWLZM compared to MEHP.

Probing the interaction of lysozyme with cardiac glycoside digitoxin: experimental and in silico analyses

Digitoxin is a cardiac glycoside used to treat heart failure and heart arrhythmia. However, its therapeutic concentration range is very narrow. High doses of digitoxin are associated with severe side effects; therefore, it is necessary to develop the delivery system which can control the plasma levels of it. In this context, the binding of lysozyme, an important protein having many applications, with digitoxin has been studied to see the ability of the former as a carrier. The studies were carried out using both experimental and computational methods. The intrinsic fluorescence of lysozyme increased on the addition of digitoxin. Fluorescence results suggested that there was a strong interaction between lysozyme and digitoxin which was favored, mainly, by hydrophobic forces. Further, digitoxin affected the secondary structure of lysozyme slightly by causing the partial unfolding of lysozyme. The preferred binding site of digitoxin within lysozyme was the large cavity of the protein. Molecular docking studies also established the principal role of hydrophobic forces in the binding with a significant support of hydrogen bonding. Frontier molecular orbitals of free digitoxin and in complexation with lysozyme were also computed and discussed. The findings from molecular dynamics simulation studies elucidate that, when contrasted with the first and third conformations of the digitoxin-bound lysozyme complex, the second conformation promotes structural stability, reduces flexibility, and enhances the compactness and folding properties of lysozyme. The overall study shows that lysozyme could act as a potential carrier for digitoxin in pharmaceutical formulations.

Molecular interaction of lysozyme with therapeutic drug azithromycin: Effect of sodium dodecyl sulfate on binding profile

This paper describes an inclusive biophysical study elucidating the interaction of therapeutic drug azithromycin (Azith) with hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL). Spectroscopic and computational tools have been employed to study the interaction of Azith with HEWL at pH 7.4. The fluorescence quenching constant values (Ksv) exhibited a decrease with the increase in temperature which revealed the occurrence of static quenching mechanism between Azith and HEWL. The thermodynamic data demonstrated that hydrophobic interactions were predominantly involved in the Azith-HEWL interaction. The negative value of standard Gibbs free energy (ΔG°) stated that the Azith-HEWL complex formed via spontaneous molecular interactions. The effect of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) surfactant monomers on the binding propensity of Azith with HEWL was insignificant at lower concentrations however the binding significantly decreased at increased concentrations of the former. Far-UV CD data revealed alteration in the secondary structure of HEWL in the presence of Azith and the overall HEWL conformation changed. Molecular docking results revealed that the binding of Azith with HEWL takes place through hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds.

Molecular recognition of two bioactive coumarin derivatives 7-hydroxycoumarin and 4-methyl-7-hydroxycoumarin by hen egg white lysozyme: Exploring the binding mechanism, thermodynamic parameters and structural changes using multispectroscopic and computational approaches

Multispectroscopic and computational methods of exploring the interaction between a carrier protein and therapeutic compounds provide a preliminary investigation into establishing the efficacy of such compounds. Here, two coumarin derivatives, 7-hydroxycoumarin (7-HC) and 4-methyl-7-hydroxycoumarin (4-Me-7-HC), were selected to carry out numerous biophysical interaction studies with a model carrier protein, hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL). Fluorescence spectroscopy studies conducted between HEWL and 7-HC/4-Me-7-HC revealed the binding constants (K_b) were in the range of 10⁴ M^-1, indicating a moderate nature of binding. The quenching mechanism observed during complexation process was an unusual static quenching due to the effect of temperature on the rate constant. Thermodynamic parameters revealed a positive ΔH and ΔS for HEWL-7-HC/4-Me-7-HC, indicating hydrophobic forces played a dominant role in the interaction process. FRET studies suggested a possible non-radiative energy transfer from the donor (HEWL) to the acceptor (coumarins). Molecular docking studies revealed the interaction of 7-HC/4-Me-7-HC with intrinsic fluorophores, Trp63 and Trp108, Trp108 being an essential residue for binding as proven by molecular dynamic (MD) simulation. MD simulation studies also indicated conformational stability gained by HEWL upon interaction with 7-HC and 4-Me-7-HC. The microenvironment surrounding the Trp residues showed a significant Stoke's shift on carrying out 3-D fluorescence. CD studies revealed a decrease in the alpha helical content of HEWL upon interacting with the ligands. Enzymatic assay conducted for HEWL in the presence of 7-HC/4-Me-7-HC saw an increase in the activity of HEWL, suggesting a change in structural conformation and stability of the protein, altering its activity.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A comparative in silico study to detect the effect of food-additives on metabolic protein and its perturbations compensated by osmolytes

Since its inception, food additive has been an integral part of the food processing industry with various commercial roles. Besides its advantages, various studies have already highlighted its long-term adverse effects on human health. However, in terms of protein structures and functions, the innate mechanism that triggers these effects has not been elucidated in previously reported studies. Our work takes an in silico approach to delve into structural implications resulting from these additives with three well studied metabolic proteins-lysozyme, bovine serum albumin (BSA) and ribonuclease A. Three classes of food additives- synthetic color, preservatives, and phosphate-containing, are taken here to understand their effects on the aforementioned metabolic proteins. Conventional molecular docking and dynamics (MD) studies reveal that these additives induce significant structural perturbations. Among them, carmoisine brings about the most secondary structural changes for lysozyme and ribonuclease A, whereas sodium tripolyphosphate affects BSA the most. To restore the secondary structural loss, we further examine the roles of osmolytes through cross-docking and higher timescale MD simulations. These studies unravel that application of osmolytes like raffinose and trehalose triggers structural restoration for BSA, lysozyme and ribonuclease A, and highlight their roles as co-formulants to alleviate the adverse effects of food additives.

Spectroscopic and Molecular Docking Investigation on the Noncovalent Interaction of Lysozyme with Saffron Constituent "Safranal"

Owing to the various beneficial properties of the popular spice saffron, the interaction of safranal, a secondary metabolite of the former, with hen egg white lysozyme was investigated. The formation of a complex was evidenced by UV-visible spectroscopy. Fluorescence quenching experiments were also performed to understand the binding mechanism and to evaluate the forces involved in binding. The strong absorption of safranal in the range of excitation and emission wavelengths of lysozyme fluorescence required the correction of the inner filter effect for fluorescence spectra to obtain the apparent extent of binding. There was a considerable difference between the observed spectra and corrected spectra, and a similar observation was found in the case of synchronous fluorescence spectra. From the analysis of quenching data, it was found that the mechanism involved in quenching was static with 1:1 binding between them. The interaction was found to be driven, mainly, by hydrophobic forces and hydrogen bonding. Safranal had negligible impact on the secondary structure of lysozyme. The interaction was also studied by molecular docking, and the results were in good agreement with the results obtained experimentally. The binding site of safranal was in the big hydrophobic cavity of lysozyme. The amino acids involved in the interaction were Asp52, Ile58, Gln57, Asn59, Trp62, Trp63, Trp108, Ile98, Asp101, and Ala107.

Interactions of the cis and trans states of an azobenzene photoswitch with lysozyme induced by red and blue light

Exploring the interaction between an azobenzene-based photoswitch and natural protein can help elucidate how the photo-control of an optical molecule participates in the transmission and delivery of proteins, as well as the effects of azo-switch trans and cis states on protein configurations. In this study, fluorescence analysis, circular dichroism spectroscopy, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations were used to study the interaction among different configurations of tetra-ortho-methoxy substituted azobenzene di-maleimide (toM-ABDM), a red light-induced optical azo-switch, and lysozyme (LYZ). Results showed that toM-ABDM caused the static quenching of LYZ. The cis toM-ABDM had stronger binding affinity than trans toM-ABDM. The noncovalent interaction, hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces, could not regulate the conformation of LYZ in photo-control. A binding model of toM-ABDM and LYZ in different forms induced by red and blue light was further established by computer simulation.

Stochastic Binding Process of Blunt-End Stacking of DNA Molecules Observed by Atomic Force Microscopy

Hydrophobic attraction is often a physical origin of nonspecific and irreversible (uncontrollable) processes observed for colloidal and biological systems, such as aggregation, precipitation, and fouling with biomolecules. On the contrary, blunt-end stacking of complementary DNA duplex chain pairs, which is also mainly driven by hydrophobic interaction, is specific and stable enough to lead to self-assemblies of DNA nanostructures. To understand the reason behind these contradicting phenomena, we measured forces operating between two self-assembled monolayers of duplexed DNA molecules with blunt ends (DNA-SAMs) and analyzed their statistics. We found the high specificity and stability of blunt-end stacking that resulted in the high resemblance between the interaction forces measured on approaching and retracting. The other finding is on the stochastic formation process of blunt-end stacking, which appeared as a significant fluctuation of the interaction forces at separations smaller than 2.5 nm. Based on these results, we discuss the underlying mechanism of the specificity and stability of blunt-end stacking.

Binding of naringin and naringenin with hen egg white lysozyme: A spectroscopic investigation and molecular docking study

The interactions of naringenin (NG) and naringin (NR) with Hen Egg White Lysozyme (HEWL) in aqueous medium have been investigated using UV-vis spectroscopy, steady-state fluorescence, circular dichroism (CD), Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and molecular docking analyses. Both NG and NR can quench the intrinsic fluorescence of HEWL via static quenching mechanism. At 300K, the value of binding constant (K_b) of HEWL-NG complex (5.596±0.063×10⁴M^-1) was found to be greater than that of HEWL-NR complex (3.404±0.407×10⁴M^-1). The negative ΔG° values in cases of both the complexes specify the spontaneous binding. The binding distance between the donor (HEWL) and acceptor (NG/NR) was estimated using the Försters theory and the possibility of non-radiative energy transfer from HEWL to NG/NR was observed. The presence of metal ions (Ca²⁺, Cu²⁺ and Fe²⁺) decreased the binding affinity of NG/NR towards HEWL. Synchronous fluorescence studies indicate the change in Trp micro-environment due to the incorporation of NG/NR into HEWL. CD and FT-IR studies indicated that the α-helicity of the HEWL was slightly enhanced due to ligand binding. NG and NR inhibited the enzymatic activity of HEWL and exhibited their affinity for the active site of HEWL. Molecular docking studies revealed that both NG and NR bind in the close vicinity of Trp 62 and Trp 63 residues which is vital for the catalytic activity.

Optical Spectroscopic and Morphological Characterizations of Curcuminized Silk Biomaterials: A Perspective from Drug Stabilization

Silk protein fibroins have gained remarkable attention in recent years as a potential drug carrier in the developing medicinal field of research. In this work, the stability of anticancer agent curcumin in the presence of two different silk protein fibroins from nonmulberry Antheraea mylitta (Am) and mulberry Bombyx mori (Bm) has been examined, and the possible mechanism of stabilization in a physiologically relevant medium has also been explored. In solution phase, upon treatment with curcumin, the predominated β-sheet structure of Am is marginally altered, whereas in the case of Bm, a substantial structural changeover has been observed (from coil to β-sheet) to accommodate the hydrophobic drug. Also, the morphological assessments suggest that curcumin is nicely housed in the nanoscaffold of silk fibroin (SF). Consequently, the extent of degradation of curcumin is remarkably suppressed upon encapsulation with the SF. The dissimilarity in the binding patterns of curcumin with these silk proteins could be responsible for the observed difference in the stability orders. Curcumin binds the surface of Bm, whereas in Am, the drug is incorporated in the hydrophobic cavity, and as a consequence, the drug is effectively sequestered out of the aqueous medium. The increase in the fluorescence quantum yield upon interaction with the protein greatly modulates the excited-state intermolecular hydrogen atom transfer (ESIPT) process, which is in tune with a substantial increase in the lifetime of the excited-state of curcumin. The ESIPT is known to play a crucial role in the degradation of curcumin under physiological pH conditions, which perhaps implies its potential therapeutic activity in the presence of silk. The in-depth spectroscopic analyses of curcumin-SF complexes in aqueous medium can provide useful insights for further applicative developments in bioengineering.

Counterpointing Scenarios on the Fate of Different Prototropic Forms of Norfloxacin Housed in the Pocket of Lysozyme: The Nonelectrostatic Interactions in the Protein Interior Are in the Controlling Role on the Prototropic Equilibria of the Guest

Herein, we report a comprehensive study on the interaction of three protomeric forms of the antibacterial drug norfloxacin (nfx) with the enzymatic protein human lysozyme (lyz). Norfloxacin, having the option for two-stage acid-base equilibria, converts from cationic (nfx⁺) to zwitterionic (nfx^±) form, followed by an anionic (nfx^-) species, with increasing pH. Among these protomeric forms, lysozyme binds nfx^± most robustly, whereas nfx^- has a weak association and nfx⁺ does not show any interaction. In lysozyme, the location of the drug was ascertained by competitive binding assay with 8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonate, and this was further examined with molecular docking simulation. The binding process was found to be primarily governed by hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interactions. The study has further revealed that preferential binding of nfx^± by the protein over nfx^- led to a switchover of nfx^- to nfx^±; and the resulting increased population of nfx^± over the other is beneficial for the pharmacological activity of the drug in terms of its accumulation in the target bacterial cells. The present study accomplishes two important objectives. It holds significance regarding the differential interaction of multiprotomeric drugs with biomolecules, such as proteins, enzymes, lipid membranes, etc., and also on such biomolecule-assisted alteration of the acid-base equilibrium and consequent bioavailability of the drug. The findings are useful from the viewpoints of dispensation, distribution, and metabolism of any prototropic drug in living systems as they encounter several biomolecules in vivo. Another importance of this work stems from the study of comparative binding responses of lysozyme toward a drug existing in multiple forms depending on its protonation states or some other chemical processes.