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Vicente-Santos A, Lock LR, Allira M, Dyer KE, Dunsmore A, Tu W, Volokhov DV, Herrera C, Lei GS, Relich RF, Janech MG, Bland AM, Simmons NB, Becker DJ. Serum proteomics reveals a tolerant immune phenotype across multiple pathogen taxa in wild vampire bats. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1281732. [PMID: 38193073 PMCID: PMC10773587 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1281732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Bats carry many zoonotic pathogens without showing pronounced pathology, with a few exceptions. The underlying immune tolerance mechanisms in bats remain poorly understood, although information-rich omics tools hold promise for identifying a wide range of immune markers and their relationship with infection. To evaluate the generality of immune responses to infection, we assessed the differences and similarities in serum proteomes of wild vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) across infection status with five taxonomically distinct pathogens: bacteria (Bartonella spp., hemoplasmas), protozoa (Trypanosoma cruzi), and DNA (herpesviruses) and RNA (alphacoronaviruses) viruses. From 19 bats sampled in 2019 in Belize, we evaluated the up- and downregulated immune responses of infected versus uninfected individuals for each pathogen. Using a high-quality genome annotation for vampire bats, we identified 586 serum proteins but found no evidence for differential abundance nor differences in composition between infected and uninfected bats. However, using receiver operating characteristic curves, we identified four to 48 candidate biomarkers of infection depending on the pathogen, including seven overlapping biomarkers (DSG2, PCBP1, MGAM, APOA4, DPEP1, GOT1, and IGFALS). Enrichment analysis of these proteins revealed that our viral pathogens, but not the bacteria or protozoa studied, were associated with upregulation of extracellular and cytoplasmatic secretory vesicles (indicative of viral replication) and downregulation of complement activation and coagulation cascades. Additionally, herpesvirus infection elicited a downregulation of leukocyte-mediated immunity and defense response but an upregulation of an inflammatory and humoral immune response. In contrast to our two viral infections, we found downregulation of lipid and cholesterol homeostasis and metabolism with Bartonella spp. infection, of platelet-dense and secretory granules with hemoplasma infection, and of blood coagulation pathways with T. cruzi infection. Despite the small sample size, our results suggest that vampire bats have a similar suite of immune mechanisms for viruses distinct from responses to the other pathogen taxa, and we identify potential biomarkers that can expand our understanding of pathogenesis of these infections in bats. By applying a proteomic approach to a multi-pathogen system in wild animals, our study provides a distinct framework that could be expanded across bat species to increase our understanding of how bats tolerate pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lauren R. Lock
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, United States
| | - Meagan Allira
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, United States
| | - Kristin E. Dyer
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, United States
| | - Annalise Dunsmore
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Weihong Tu
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Dmitriy V. Volokhov
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Claudia Herrera
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States
- Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Guang-Sheng Lei
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Ryan F. Relich
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Michael G. Janech
- Hollings Marine Laboratory, Charleston, SC, United States
- Department of Biology, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Alison M. Bland
- Hollings Marine Laboratory, Charleston, SC, United States
- Department of Biology, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Nancy B. Simmons
- Department of Mammalogy, Division of Vertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, United States
| | - Daniel J. Becker
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, United States
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Lee H, Kim SI. Review of Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-Based Proteomic Analyses of Body Fluids to Diagnose Infectious Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23042187. [PMID: 35216306 PMCID: PMC8878692 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23042187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Rapid and precise diagnostic methods are required to control emerging infectious diseases effectively. Human body fluids are attractive clinical samples for discovering diagnostic targets because they reflect the clinical statuses of patients and most of them can be obtained with minimally invasive sampling processes. Body fluids are good reservoirs for infectious parasites, bacteria, and viruses. Therefore, recent clinical proteomics methods have focused on body fluids when aiming to discover human- or pathogen-originated diagnostic markers. Cutting-edge liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based proteomics has been applied in this regard; it is considered one of the most sensitive and specific proteomics approaches. Here, the clinical characteristics of each body fluid, recent tandem mass spectroscopy (MS/MS) data-acquisition methods, and applications of body fluids for proteomics regarding infectious diseases (including the coronavirus disease of 2019 [COVID-19]), are summarized and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayoung Lee
- Research Center for Bioconvergence Analysis, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Ochang 28119, Korea;
- Bio-Analytical Science Division, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Seung Il Kim
- Research Center for Bioconvergence Analysis, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Ochang 28119, Korea;
- Bio-Analytical Science Division, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Korea
- Correspondence:
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Bonnet J, Ducroix-Roubertou S, Rogez S, Ajzenberg D, Courtioux B, Faucher JF. [Sleeping Sickness: A Cause of False Positive HIV Rapid Diagnostic Tests]. MEDECINE TROPICALE ET SANTE INTERNATIONALE 2021; 1:mtsibulletin.2021.115. [PMID: 35586587 PMCID: PMC9022761 DOI: 10.48327/mtsibulletin.2021.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Approaching the mechanisms related to false positives HIV rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) in patients with sleeping sickness may help to improve the accuracy of screening for HIV infection in areas endemic for Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT).We report on a patient from Congo who was managed like an AIDS-associated meningoencephalitis, based on a false positive HIV RDT at admission, and eventually received a diagnosis of sleeping sickness. A further retrospective cohort study performed in patients with HAT shows that most of positive HIV RDT obtained prior to treatment for sleeping sickness are false positives. We found that half of them were cleared at the end of treatment course, suggesting an early clearance of some antibodies involved in cross-reactivity.A substantial clearance of HIV RDT false positives occurs during therapy for HAT. In areas where Elisa HIV tests are not readily available, repeating the HIV RDT at the end of therapy may help to identify roughly half of false positives.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Bonnet
- Université de Limoges, U1094, Neuroépidémiologie tropicale, Institut d'épidémiologie et de neurologie tropicale, GEIST, Limoges, France
| | - S. Ducroix-Roubertou
- Service des maladies infectieuses et tropicales, Centre hospitalier universitaire de Limoges, Limoges, France
| | - S. Rogez
- Service de bacte?riologie, virologie, hygie?ne, Centre hospitalier universitaire de Limoges, Limoges, France
| | - D. Ajzenberg
- Université de Limoges, U1094, Neuroépidémiologie tropicale, Institut d'épidémiologie et de neurologie tropicale, GEIST, Limoges, France.,Service de parasitologie-mycologie, Centre hospitalier universitaire de Limoges, Limoges, France
| | - B. Courtioux
- Université de Limoges, U1094, Neuroépidémiologie tropicale, Institut d'épidémiologie et de neurologie tropicale, GEIST, Limoges, France
| | - J.-F. Faucher
- Université de Limoges, U1094, Neuroépidémiologie tropicale, Institut d'épidémiologie et de neurologie tropicale, GEIST, Limoges, France.,Service des maladies infectieuses et tropicales, Centre hospitalier universitaire de Limoges, Limoges, France,*
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Calomeno NA, Moreira RS, Fernandes LA, Batista F, Marques J, Wagner G, Miletti LC. Serum proteomic signature of Trypanosoma evansi -infected mice for identification of potential biomarkers. Vet Parasitol 2021; 290:109342. [PMID: 33422749 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2021.109342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma evansi is the agent of "surra," a trypanosomosis endemic in many areas worldwide. Trypanosoma proteins released/secreted during infection are attractive biomarkers for disease detection and monitoring. Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), we performed a comprehensive analysis of the serum proteome of mice infected with T.evansi and detected changes in the abundance of parasite and host serum proteins during infection. Following bioinformatics analysis, 30 T. evansi proteins were identified in the mice serum including known targets such as pyruvate kinase 1, β-tubulin, actin A, heat shock protein 70, and cyclophilin A. We also identified two exclusive VSG epitopes which are novel putative biomarker targets. In addition, upregulation of 31 mouse proteins, including chitinase-like protein 3 and monocyte differentiation antigen CD14, were observed. Identification of parasite-specific biomarkers in the host serum is critical for the development of reliable serological/ assays for differential diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathália Anderson Calomeno
- Laboratório de Hemoparasitas e Vetores, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias (CAV), Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Av. Luís de Camões, 2090, Conta Dinheiro, Lages, SC, 88520-000, Brazil
| | - Renato Simões Moreira
- Laboratório de Hemoparasitas e Vetores, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias (CAV), Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Av. Luís de Camões, 2090, Conta Dinheiro, Lages, SC, 88520-000, Brazil; Instituto Federal de Santa Catarina (IFSC), Campus Lages, R. Heitor Villa Lobos, 222, São Francisco, Lages, SC, 88506-400, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Antônio Fernandes
- Laboratório de Hemoparasitas e Vetores, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias (CAV), Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Av. Luís de Camões, 2090, Conta Dinheiro, Lages, SC, 88520-000, Brazil
| | - Franciane Batista
- Laboratório de Hemoparasitas e Vetores, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias (CAV), Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Av. Luís de Camões, 2090, Conta Dinheiro, Lages, SC, 88520-000, Brazil
| | - Júlia Marques
- Laboratório de Hemoparasitas e Vetores, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias (CAV), Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Av. Luís de Camões, 2090, Conta Dinheiro, Lages, SC, 88520-000, Brazil
| | - Glauber Wagner
- Laboratório de Bioinformática, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus João David Ferreira Lima, Setor F, Bloco A, Sala 318, Caixa postal 476, Trindade, Florianópolis, SC, 88040-970, Brazil
| | - Luiz Claudio Miletti
- Laboratório de Hemoparasitas e Vetores, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias (CAV), Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Av. Luís de Camões, 2090, Conta Dinheiro, Lages, SC, 88520-000, Brazil.
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Parthasarathy A, Kalesh K. Defeating the trypanosomatid trio: proteomics of the protozoan parasites causing neglected tropical diseases. RSC Med Chem 2020; 11:625-645. [PMID: 33479664 PMCID: PMC7549140 DOI: 10.1039/d0md00122h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mass spectrometry-based proteomics enables accurate measurement of the modulations of proteins on a large scale upon perturbation and facilitates the understanding of the functional roles of proteins in biological systems. It is a particularly relevant methodology for studying Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma brucei, as the gene expression in these parasites is primarily regulated by posttranscriptional mechanisms. Large-scale proteomics studies have revealed a plethora of information regarding modulated proteins and their molecular interactions during various life processes of the protozoans, including stress adaptation, life cycle changes and interactions with the host. Important molecular processes within the parasite that regulate the activity and subcellular localisation of its proteins, including several co- and post-translational modifications, are also accurately captured by modern proteomics mass spectrometry techniques. Finally, in combination with synthetic chemistry, proteomic techniques facilitate unbiased profiling of targets and off-targets of pharmacologically active compounds in the parasites. This provides important data sets for their mechanism of action studies, thereby aiding drug development programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anutthaman Parthasarathy
- Rochester Institute of Technology , Thomas H. Gosnell School of Life Sciences , 85 Lomb Memorial Dr , Rochester , NY 14623 , USA
| | - Karunakaran Kalesh
- Department of Chemistry , Durham University , Lower Mount Joy, South Road , Durham DH1 3LE , UK .
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Sereno D, Akhoundi M, Sayehmri K, Mirzaei A, Holzmuller P, Lejon V, Waleckx E. Noninvasive Biological Samples to Detect and Diagnose Infections due to Trypanosomatidae Parasites: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E1684. [PMID: 32121441 PMCID: PMC7084391 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Unicellular eukaryotes of the Trypanosomatidae family include human and animal pathogens that belong to the Trypanosoma and Leishmania genera. Diagnosis of the diseases they cause requires the sampling of body fluids (e.g., blood, lymph, peritoneal fluid, cerebrospinal fluid) or organ biopsies (e.g., bone marrow, spleen), which are mostly obtained through invasive methods. Body fluids or appendages can be alternatives to these invasive biopsies but appropriateness remains poorly studied. To further address this question, we perform a systematic review on clues evidencing the presence of parasites, genetic material, antibodies, and antigens in body secretions, appendages, or the organs or proximal tissues that produce these materials. Paper selection was based on searches in PubMed, Web of Science, WorldWideScience, SciELO, Embase, and Google. The information of each selected article (n = 333) was classified into different sections and data were extracted from 77 papers. The presence of Trypanosomatidae parasites has been tracked in most of organs or proximal tissues that produce body secretions or appendages, in naturally or experimentally infected hosts. The meta-analysis highlights the paucity of studies on human African trypanosomiasis and an absence on animal trypanosomiasis. Among the collected data high heterogeneity in terms of the I2 statistic (100%) is recorded. A high positivity is recorded for antibody and genetic material detection in urine of patients and dogs suffering leishmaniasis, and of antigens for leishmaniasis and Chagas disease. Data on conjunctival swabs can be analyzed with molecular methods solely for dogs suffering canine visceral leishmaniasis. Saliva and hair/bristles showed a pretty good positivity that support their potential to be used for leishmaniasis diagnosis. In conclusion, our study pinpoints significant gaps that need to be filled in order to properly address the interest of body secretion and hair or bristles for the diagnosis of infections caused by Leishmania and by other Trypanosomatidae parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Sereno
- Institut de Recherche pour le Dévelopement, Université de Montpellier, UMR INTERTRYP IRD, CIRAD, 34032 Montpellier, France; (V.L.); (E.W.)
- Institut de Recherche pour le Dévelopement, Université de Montpellier, UMR MIVEGEC IRD, CNRS, 34032 Montpellier, France
| | - Mohammad Akhoundi
- Parasitology-Mycology Department, Avicenne Hospital, AP-HP, 93000 Bobigny, France;
| | - Kourosh Sayehmri
- Psychosocial Injuries Research Center, Department of Biostatistics, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam 6931851147, Iran;
| | - Asad Mirzaei
- Parasitology Department, Paramedical School, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam 6931851147, Iran;
- Zoonotic Diseases Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam 6931851147, Iran
| | - Philippe Holzmuller
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE “Animal, Santé, Territoires, Risques et Ecosystèmes”, F-34398 Montpellier, France;
- ASTRE, CIRAD, INRAE, Université de Montpellier (I-MUSE), 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Veerle Lejon
- Institut de Recherche pour le Dévelopement, Université de Montpellier, UMR INTERTRYP IRD, CIRAD, 34032 Montpellier, France; (V.L.); (E.W.)
| | - Etienne Waleckx
- Institut de Recherche pour le Dévelopement, Université de Montpellier, UMR INTERTRYP IRD, CIRAD, 34032 Montpellier, France; (V.L.); (E.W.)
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales «Dr Hideyo Noguchi», Universidad autònoma de yucatán, Merida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
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Alharbi RA. Proteomics approach and techniques in identification of reliable biomarkers for diseases. Saudi J Biol Sci 2020; 27:968-974. [PMID: 32127776 PMCID: PMC7042613 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomarkers, also called biological markers, are indicators to identify a biological case or situation as well as detecting any presence of biological activities and processes. Proteins are considered as a type of biomarkers based on their characteristics. Therefore, proteomics approach is one of the most promising approaches in this field. The purpose of this review is to summarize the use of proteomics approach and techniques to identify proteins as biomarkers for different diseases. This review was obtained by searching in a computerized database. So, different researches and studies that used proteomics approach to identify different biomarkers for different diseases were reviewed. Also, techniques of proteomics that are used to identify proteins as biomarkers were collected. Techniques and methods of proteomics approach are used for the identification of proteins' activities and presence as biomarkers for different types of diseases from different types of samples. There are three essential steps of this approach including: extraction and separation of proteins, identification of proteins, and verification of proteins. Finally, clinical trials for new discovered biomarker or undefined biomarker would be on.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raed Abdullah Alharbi
- Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Majmaah University, PO Box 7921, Majmaah 15341, Saudi Arabia
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Bharucha T, Gangadharan B, Kumar A, de Lamballerie X, Newton PN, Winterberg M, Dubot-Pérès A, Zitzmann N. Mass spectrometry-based proteomic techniques to identify cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for diagnosing suspected central nervous system infections. A systematic review. J Infect 2019; 79:407-418. [PMID: 31404562 PMCID: PMC6838782 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2019.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Central nervous system (CNS) infections account for considerable death and disability every year. An urgent research priority is scaling up diagnostic capacity, and introduction of point-of-care tests. We set out to assess current evidence for the application of mass spectrometry (MS) peptide sequencing in identification of diagnostic biomarkers for CNS infections. METHODS We performed a systematic review (PROSPEROCRD42018104257) using PRISMA guidelines on use of MS to identify cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers for diagnosing CNS infections. We searched PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane for articles published from 1 January 2000 to 1 February 2019, and contacted experts. Inclusion criteria involved primary research except case reports, on the diagnosis of infectious diseases except HIV, applying MS to human CSF samples, and English language. RESULTS 4,620 papers were identified, of which 11 were included, largely confined to pre-clinical biomarker discovery, and eight (73%) published in the last five years. 6 studies performed further work termed verification or validation. In 2 of these studies, it was possible to extract data on sensitivity and specificity of the biomarkers detected by ELISA, ranging from 89-94% and 58-92% respectively. CONCLUSIONS The findings demonstrate feasibility and potential of the methods in a variety of infectious diseases, but emphasise the need for strong interdisciplinary collaborations to ensure appropriate study design and biomarker validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tehmina Bharucha
- Institute of Glycobiology, Department of Biochemistry, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RQ, United Kingdom; Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao Democratic People's Republic.
| | - Bevin Gangadharan
- Institute of Glycobiology, Department of Biochemistry, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Abhinav Kumar
- Institute of Glycobiology, Department of Biochemistry, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Xavier de Lamballerie
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ - IRD 190 - Inserm 1207 - IHU Méditerranée Infection), Marseille, France
| | - Paul N Newton
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao Democratic People's Republic; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Markus Winterberg
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom; Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 3/F, 60th Anniversary Chalermprakiat Building, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Audrey Dubot-Pérès
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao Democratic People's Republic; Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ - IRD 190 - Inserm 1207 - IHU Méditerranée Infection), Marseille, France; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole Zitzmann
- Institute of Glycobiology, Department of Biochemistry, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RQ, United Kingdom
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