Enhanced anti-inflammatory effect of Rosmarinic acid by encapsulation and combination with the exosome in mice with LPS-induced endometritis through suppressing the TLR4-NLRP3 signaling pathway

New idea of Fuke Qianjin capsule in treating sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease: Anti-inflammatory in the early stage and reparative in the later stage

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease (SPID) occurs in female internal genitalia and surrounding connective tissue. Recent clinical studies have shown that the traditional Chinese medicine Fuke Qianjin capsule (FKQ) can shorten the course of this disease, but its pharmacological effects and potential mechanism have not been fully elucidated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy and underlying mechanisms of FKQ in the treatment of SPID.

METHODS

In this study, we first established a mixed infection model to explore the protective effect of FKQ on common pathogens of SPID. Afterwards, mixed bacterial infection and mechanical injury were used in a SPID rat model to explore the protective mechanism of FKQ on SPID rats. Inflammation, repair and immune cells were tested.

RESULTS

FKQ has a protective effect against infections caused by SPID pathogenic bacterial and may reduce mortality from mixed infections. In the SPID model, FKQ improved pathological damage to the uterus, reduced the area of uterine fibrosis, and inhibited the levels of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-18, TGF-β1 and VEGF) caused by pathogenic bacteria. Moreover, FKQ treatment reduced the accumulation of NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD Vimentin, and Cytokeratin 18 in the uterus and suppressed the expression of TGF-β1 and VEGF in the fallopian tubes, thereby reducing inflammation and promoting mucosal repair. In addition, FKQ can restore the immune function balance of SPID rats by increasing the proportion of Treg cells in the spleen and thymus in a rat model of SPID, reducing the proportion of Th17 lymphocytes, and promoting an immunological balance of Treg/Th17 cells, thereby regulating the immune system of the body.

CONCLUSION

In summary, FKQ treatment for SPID is the result of a fourfold combination of antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, reparative and immune-enhancing activities.

FuKe QianJin capsule alleviates endometritis via inhibiting inflammation and pyroptosis through modulating TLR4/ NF-κB /NLRP3 pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fuke Qianjin Capsule (FKC), a traditional Chinese medicine commonly employed for treating endometritis, lacks reported treatment mechanisms.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the present study was to explore the role and mechanism of FKC in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endometritis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The main active ingredients of FKC were identified via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in conjunction with standard substances. Prior to endometritis induction, Sprague Dawley female rats received FKC for 7 days. The endometritis model was established through an intrauterine injection of 1 mg/kg LPS. Concurrently, an LPS-induced RAW264.7 cell inflammation model was utilized, in which the cells were treated with serum containing Fuke Qianjin Capsule. Pathological alterations in the endometrium were assessed via H&E staining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The contents of MPO in uterine tissues, and NO release in cells, along with the secretion of IL-18, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in both tissues and cells, were determined via assay kits. The mRNA levels of Nlrp3, Caspase-1, Gsdmd, and Il-1β in uterine tissues and cells were analyzed via qPCR. The protein levels of TLR4, p65, p-P65, NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD, and IL-1β in these samples were evaluated through Western blot analysis. Immunofluorescence was used to assess the protein levels of p-P65 and NLRP3 in uterine tissues and cells.

RESULTS

Five primary active components of FKC were identified. Treatment with FKC in vivo mitigated endometrial pathological damage and significantly decreased the levels of MPO, IL-18, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, as well as the levels of Nlrp3, Caspase-1, Gsdmd, and Il-1β mRNA in tissue samples. Treatment with FKC inhibited the expression of TLR4, p-P65, NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD, and IL-1β, as well as reduced NLRP3 protein fluorescence intensity, and inhibited P65 phosphorylation. In vitro findings demonstrated that FKC-containing serum reduced IL-18, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels, as well as reduced Nlrp3, Caspase-1, Gsdmd, and Il-1β mRNA levels. In addition, FKC-containing serum inhibited the protein expression of TLR4, p-P65, NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD, and IL-1β. FKC-containing serum also reduced NLRP3 protein fluorescence intensity and suppressed P65 phosphorylation.

CONCLUSION

FKC reverses the LPS induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and mitigates inflammation and pyroptosis through the modulation of the TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway, thereby alleviating endometritis.

Seminal Plasma-Derived Exosome Preserves the Quality Parameters of the Post-Thaw Semen of Bulls with Low Freezeability

Introduction: Sperm cryopreservation is a useful storage technique in artificial insemination. Nanoparticles and nanovesicles such as exosomes are widely used in sperm cryopreservation procedures to alleviate cold-induced injury inflicted during sperm freezing. Objective: The objective of the present study was to examine the impact of varying concentrations of exosomes derived from seminal plasma added to a freezing extender on the quality of post-thawed bull sperm. Methods: Five Holstein bulls were chosen based on their samples having less than 30% progressive motility. After exosome extraction, semen samples from bulls (n = 5) with progressive sperm motility ≤30% were collected, diluted with different exosome concentrations (0, 25, 50, and 100 μg/mL), and aspirated into 0.5 mL straws. After the freeze-thaw process, sperm total and progressive motility, viability, morphology, plasma membrane integrity, mitochondrial activity, and apoptosis status were assessed. Furthermore, the expression levels of annexin (ANX1), dystrophy-associated Fer-1-like protein (DYSF), fibronectin 1 (FN1), and reactive oxygen species modulator 1 (ROMO1) were evaluated via real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: Adding different concentrations of exosomes (25, 50, and 150 μg/mL) significantly increased the progressive motility, viability, and membrane integrity of sperm compared with the control group (p < 0.05). For the apoptosis index, treatment with 100 μg/mL exosomes significantly increased the percentage of live cells (p < 0.05), while the percentage of necrotic cells decreased significantly (p < 0.05) compared with 25 μg/mL exosome. The results of quantitative PCR showed that the expression levels of ANX1 were significantly (p < 0.05) upregulated at 50 μg/mL exosome, and the expression of ROMO1, FN1, and DYSF were downregulated upon treatment with different exosome concentrations. Conclusions: In conclusion, supplementing the freezing diluent with exosome-derived seminal plasma could preserve the quality parameters of the post-thaw semen of the bull with low freezeability and could be used as a helpful method for reproductive programs.

Engineered exosome as a biological nanoplatform for drug delivery of Rosmarinic acid to improve implantation in mice with induced endometritis

Endometritis is an inflammatory and histopathologic disease in uterine tissues that interferes with the proper decidualization and implantation of the embryo. In this study, rosmarinic acid (RA) is used as an anti-inflammatory agent that encapsulates in exosomes and is used to attenuate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endometritis and improve implantation. For this purpose, exosomes were loaded with RA and then administrated into the animal groups, including RA, exosome, RA plus exosome (RA + Exo), and RA-loaded exosomes (RALExo) groups. The concentrations of RA or exosomes used in this study were 10 mg/kg, and the compounds were injected into the uterine horn 24 h following the induction of endometritis. Upon the presence of inflammation detected by the histopathological method, the most proper groups were mated with male mice. The effect of the treatment group on the implantation rate, progesterone levels, and gene expressions were assessed by Chicago Blue staining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and Quantitative PCR (qPCR), respectively. Results showed RALExo10 and RA10 + Exo10 groups improved pathological alterations, enhanced progesterone levels, increased implantation rate, as well as heightened expression levels of Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and Mucin-16 (MUC-16) genes. Besides, the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines, including Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), Interlukine-10 (IL-10), Interlukine-15 (IL-15), and Interlukine-18 (IL-18), were regulated. Our findings indicated that the expression of LIF, Muc-16 genes as well as IL-18, were significantly correlated with serum progesterone concentrations and the implantation rate in the treatment groups. The RALExo10 and RA10 + Exo10 groups showed ameliorated implantation rates in experimental groups.

Effect of 3D and 2D cell culture systems on trophoblast extracellular vesicle physico-chemical characteristics and potency

The growing understanding of the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in embryo-maternal communication has sparked considerable interest in their therapeutic potential within assisted reproductive technology, particularly in enhancing implantation success. However, the major obstacle remains the large-scale production of EVs, and there is still a gap in understanding how different culture systems affect the characteristics of the EVs. In the current study, trophoblast analogue human chorionic carcinoma cell line was cultivated in both conventional monolayer culture (2D) and as spheroids in suspension culture (3D) and how the cell growth environment affects the physical, biochemical and cellular signalling properties of EVs produced by them was studied. Interestingly, the 3D system was more active in secreting EVs compared to the 2D system, while no significant differences were observed in terms of morphology, size, and classical EV protein marker expression between EVs derived from the two culture systems. There were substantial differences in the proteomic cargo profile and cellular signalling potency of EVs derived from the two culture systems. Notably, 2D EVs were more potent in inducing a cellular response in endometrial epithelial cells (EECs) compared to 3D EVs. Therefore, it is essential to recognize that the biological activity of EVs depends not only on the cell of origin but also on the cellular microenvironment of the parent cell. In conclusion, caution is warranted when selecting an EV production platform, especially for assessing the functional and therapeutic potential of EVs through in vitro studies.

Potential of rosmarinic acid from Orthosiphon aristatus extract for inflammatory induced diseases and its mechanisms of action

Orthosiphon aristatus has been traditionally used as a medicinal herb for various illnesses in Southeast Asia and Europe. The most dominant bioactive compound of the herb is rosmarinic acid (RosA) which has been demonstrated for its remarkable anti-inflammatory properties. This review describes the recent progress of studies on multi-target molecular pathways of RosA in relation to targeted inflammatory-associated diseases. An inclusive literature search was conducted using electronic databases such as Google Scholar, Scopus, Springer Link, PubMed, Medline, Wiley and Science Direct for studies reporting on the anti-inflammatory actions of RosA from 2008 until 2023. The keywords of the search were RosA and anti-inflammatory in relation to hepatoprotective, chondroprotective, cardioprotective, neuroprotective and toxicity. Only publications that are written in English are included in this review. The inhibition and deactivation of pro-inflammatory biomolecules by RosA were explained based on the initial inflammation stimuli and their location in the body. The activation of Nrf2/HO-1 expression to inhibit NF-κB pathway is the key mechanism for hepatoprotection. Besides NF-κB inhibition, RosA activates PPARγ to alleviate ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced myocardial injury for cardioprotection. The regulation of MAPK and T-cell activation is important for chondroprotection, whereas the anti-oxidant property of RosA is the main contributor of neuroprotection. Even though less studies on the anti-inflammation of RosA extracts from O. aristatus, but the effective pharmacological properties of RosA has promoted it as a natural potent lead for further investigation.

Current knowledge on the role of extracellular vesicles in endometrial receptivity

Endometrial receptivity has been widely understood as the capacity of the endometrium to receive implantable embryos. The establishment of endometrial receptivity involves multiple biological processes including decidualization, tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, immune regulation, and oxidative metabolism. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer-membrane nanosized vesicles mediating cell-to-cell communication. Recently, EVs and their cargo have been proven as functional factors in the establishment of endometrial receptivity. In this review, we comprehensively summarized the alteration of endometrium/embryo-derived EVs during the receptive phase and retrospected the current findings which revealed the pivotal role and potential mechanism of EVs to promote successful implantation. Furthermore, we highlight the potentiality and limitations of EVs being translated into clinical applications such as biomarkers of endometrial receptivity or reproductive therapeutic mediators, and point out the direction for further research.