Personality development in old age relates to physical health and cognitive performance: Evidence from the Berlin Aging Study II

A Longitudinal Study of Physical Activity and Personality in the Wellbeing of Older Adults

Objective: This study examines the interactions of physical activity and personality traits in the subjective wellbeing (SWB) of older adults. Methods: 520 Scottish participants (262 male; 258 female) completed self-reported surveys measuring their level of physical activity, personality, and SWB in 2011-2013 (mean age = 76.23 ± .68) and in 2014-2016 (mean age = 79.31 ± .62). Results: While all of the Big Five personality traits predicted SWB across the 3-year period in the expected direction, neither physical activity nor its joint effect with any of the personality traits was a significant predictor of subsequent SWB. Discussion: Further research on older adults with higher variation in age, exercise level, and cultural background is needed to disentangle how physical activity and personality influence SWB.

Change in body weight of older adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: longitudinal results from the Berlin Aging Study II

OBJECTIVES

Change in body weight during the COVID-19 pandemic as an unintended side effect of lockdown measures has been predominantly reported for younger and middle-aged adults. However, information on older adults for which weight loss is known to result in adverse outcomes, is scarce. In this study we describe the body weight change in older adults before, during, and after the COVID-19 lockdown measures and explore putative associated factors with a focus on the period that includes the first six months of the COVID-19 containment measures.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study with three follow-up examinations over the course of 10 years.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

In this study, we analyzed the longitudinal weight change of 472 participants of the Berlin Aging Study II (mean age of 67.5 years at baseline).

MEASUREMENTS

Body weight was assessed at four time points. Additionally, differences between subgroups characterized by socio-economic, cognitive, and psychosocial variables as well as morbidity burden, biological age markers (epigenetic clocks, telomere length), and frailty were compared.

RESULTS

On average, women and men lost 0.87% (n = 227) and 0.5% (n = 245) of their body weight per year in the study period covering the first six months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Weight loss among men was particularly pronounced among groups characterized by change in physical activity due to COVID-19 lockdown, low positive affect, premature epigenetic age (7-CpG clock), diagnosed metabolic syndrome, and a more masculine gender score (all variables: p < 0.05, n = 245).

CONCLUSION

During the COVID-19 pandemic, older participants lost weight with a 2.5-times (women) and 2-times (men) higher rate than what is expected in this age.

The effects of socioeconomic status on personality development in adulthood and aging

INTRO

The current study examined the effects of adulthood socioeconomic status (SES) on levels of and changes in the Big Five personality traits domains and nuances in adulthood and during aging. We also tested whether the relations between adulthood SES and personality traits differed by childhood SES and age.

METHODS

Data were drawn from three longitudinal studies: the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging (SATSA, N = 2000), the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS, N = 6428), and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS, N = 23,238).

RESULTS

Using the latent growth models, across samples, we found associations between high SES and low levels of neuroticism and high levels of extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness. The effects of SES on changes in personality traits were mainly observed in the aging sample of HRS. In general, a similar pattern was observed at the nuance level. Analyses of the moderating effects of age suggested some evidence for the increasingly important role of SES in levels of and changes in personality traits in older ages.

CONCLUSION

The findings support SES as a source that partially accounts for individual differences in personality traits level. Some evidence was found for the relations between SES and changes in personality traits in old age.

Five-factor model personality traits and grip strength: Meta-analysis of seven studies

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between Five-Factor Model personality traits and grip strength.

METHOD

Adults aged 16 to 104 years old (N > 40,000) were from the Health and Retirement Study, the Midlife in the United States Study, The English Longitudinal Study of Aging, the National Health and Aging Trends Survey, the United Kingdom Household Longitudinal Study, and the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study graduate and sibling samples. Participants had data on personality traits, demographic factors, grip strength, and mediators such as depressive symptoms, physical activity, body mass index (BMI), and c-reactive protein (CRP).

RESULTS

Across all samples and a meta-analysis, higher neuroticism was related to lower grip strength (meta-analytic estimate: -0.07, 95%CI: -0.075; -0.056). Higher extraversion (0.04, 95%CI: 0.022; 0.060), openness (0.05, 95%CI: 0.032; 0.062), and conscientiousness (0.05, 95%CI: 0.04; 0.065) were associated with higher grip strength across most samples and the meta-analysis. Depressive symptoms were the most consistent mediators between neuroticism and grip strength. Depressive symptoms and physical activity partly mediated the associations with extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness. Lower CRP partly mediated the association with conscientiousness. Sex moderated the associations for extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness, with stronger associations among males. Age moderated the neuroticism association, with stronger associations among younger individuals.

CONCLUSION

This study provides replicable evidence that personality is related to grip strength and identifies potential moderators and mediators of these associations. Overall, higher neuroticism is a risk factor for low grip strength, whereas high extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness may be protective.

The transition to grandparenthood: No consistent evidence for change in the Big Five personality traits and life satisfaction

Intergenerational relations have received close attention in the context of population aging and increased childcare provision by grandparents. However, few studies have investigated the psychological consequences of becoming a grandparent. In a preregistered test of grandparenthood as a developmental task in middle and older adulthood, we used representative panel data from the Netherlands ( N = 563) and the United States ( N = 2210) to analyze first-time grandparents’ personality and life satisfaction development. We tested gender, employment, and grandchild care as moderators. To address confounding, we employed propensity score matching using two procedures: matching grandparents with parents and nonparents to achieve balance in different sets of carefully selected covariates. Multilevel models demonstrated mean-level stability of the Big Five personality traits and life satisfaction over the transition to grandparenthood, and no consistent moderation effects—contrary to the social investment principle. The few small effects of grandparenthood on personality development did not replicate across samples. We found no evidence of larger inter-individual differences in change in grandparents compared to the controls or of lower rank-order stability. Our findings add to recent critical re-examinations of the social investment principle and are discussed in light of characteristics that might moderate grandparents’ personality development.

Trajectories of Pain in Very Old Age: The Role of Eudaimonic Wellbeing and Personality

Pain is common in very old age and in the last years prior to death. However, little is known regarding longitudinal trajectories of pain in very old age and at the end of life. Moreover, whereas medical and morbidity-related factors contributing to pain are established, the role of psychosocial factors, such as eudaimonic wellbeing or personality as potential determinants of late-life pain trajectories has so far not been sufficiently investigated. We used data from the LateLine project. The sample consisted of n = 118 very old adults (M = 90.5 years, SD = 2.8 years) who were living alone at baseline and who had died between 2009 and 2021. They took part in up to 16 measurement occasions (M = 5.2, SD = 4.7, range 1–16) within an observational interval of 7 years. Assessment of pain was based on the SF-36 bodily pain subscale. Key indicators of eudaimonic wellbeing (autonomy, environmental mastery, and purpose in life) as well two of the Big Five personality traits (neuroticism and extraversion) were included as predictors. We controlled in all analyses for gender, education, subjective health, and depressive symptoms. Contrasting pain trajectories over chronological age (time since birth) vs. time to death, a time-to-death-related model resulted in a better model fit and accounted for a larger amount of pain variability than the age-related model. Mean-level change in pain, both over age and time to death, was not significant, but there was substantial interindividual variability in intraindividual trajectories. Age-related change in pain was significantly predicted by autonomy and neuroticism, with increasing pain among those who had lower initial autonomy scores and higher initial neuroticism scores. With regard to time-to-death-related trajectories of pain, higher purpose in life as well as lower extraversion at baseline predicted less increase or even steeper decrease in pain with approaching death. Our findings suggest that, despite overall mean-level stability in pain both over age and time to death, there is a substantial proportion of individuals who reveal deterioration in pain over time. Regarding the role of psychosocial predictors, personality traits and eudaimonic wellbeing are related with late-life pain trajectories both over age and time-to-death.

Personality Change Profiles and Changes in Cognition Among Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Research on the relationship between personality traits and cognitive abilities has primarily used cross-sectional designs and considered personality traits individually in relation to cognitive dimensions. This study (N = 2,652) examined the relationship between Big Five personality change profiles and change in cognitive factors, episodic memory and executive functioning. Latent profile analysis was used to capture patterns of change across the Big Five traits. Three profiles of personality change were defined: Decreasers, Maintainers, and Increasers. The Decreasers declined more in episodic memory compared to the Increasers and Maintainers. Also, the Decreasers declined more in executive functioning compared to the Increasers, but not the Maintainers. The findings advance our understanding of the links between patterns of personality change and cognitive aging.

Cohort profile: follow-up of a Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II) subsample as part of the GendAge study

PURPOSE

The study 'Sex- and gender-sensitive prevention of cardiovascular and metabolic disease in older adults in Germany', the GendAge study, focuses on major risk factors for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases and on the development of major outcomes from intermediate phenotypes in the context of sex and gender differences. It is based on a follow-up examination of a subsample (older group) of the Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II).

PARTICIPANTS

The GendAge study assessments took place between 22 June 2018 and 10 March 2020. A total of 1100 participants (older BASE-II subsample, aged ≥65 years) with baseline data assessed at least by one of the BASE-II partner sites were investigated in the follow-up. These participants had a mean age of 75.6 years (SD ±3.8), with a mean follow-up at 7.4 years (SD ±1.5).

FINDINGS TO DATE

Data from different domains such as internal medicine, geriatrics, immunology and psychology were collected, with a focus on cardiometabolic diseases and in the context of sex and gender differences. Diabetes mellitus type 2 was reported by 15.6% and 8.6% of men and women, respectively. In contrast, this disease was diagnosed in 20.7% of men and 13.3% of women, indicating that a substantial proportion of almost 30% was unaware of the disease. Echocardiography revealed that left ventricular ejection fraction was higher in women than in men, in agreement with previous reports.

FUTURE PLANS

A gender questionnaire assessing sociocultural aspects implemented as part of the follow-up described here will allow to calculate a gender score and its evaluation based on the newly collected data. At the same time, the other BASE-II research foci established over the past 10 years will be continued and strengthened by the BASE-II transition into a longitudinal study with follow-up data on the older subsample.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

DRKS00016157.

Personality maturation and personality relaxation: Differences of the Big Five personality traits in the years around the beginning and ending of working life

OBJECTIVE

At work, people are confronted with clear behavioral expectations. In line with the Social Investment Principle, the beginning and ending of working life might thus promote changes in personality traits that are relevant at work (e.g., Conscientiousness).

METHOD

Based on the data from the Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP), we examined nuanced differences of the Big Five personality traits in the years around the beginning and ending of working life. Whether participants had started working or retired in the past year was assessed yearly. The Big Five personality traits were assessed in four waves between 2005 and 2017.

RESULTS

In people who started working, multilevel analyses revealed that Conscientiousness was higher in the first year of working life versus all other years. Extraversion was higher in and after the first year of working life versus before, and Agreeableness increased gradually in the three years after people had started working. In people who retired, Conscientiousness was lower in and after the first year of retirement versus before. No other traits differed around the start of retirement.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the start of working life might promote personality maturation and that retirement might promote personality "relaxation."

Relationship between personality and physical capacities in older adults: The mediating role of subjective age, aging attitudes and physical self-perceptions

Walking speed and muscular strength are two main markers of health in adulthood. Previous studies have shown that personality traits may predict these two outcomes. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying these relationships. Thus, the present study examined whether personality traits are associated with walking speed and muscular strength through the mediating role of subjective age (how young or old individuals experience themselves to be), attitudes toward aging and physical self-perceptions. Community-dwelling older women (N = 243; M_age = 73.0; SD_age = 6.5) were recruited. For reasons of recruitment feasibility, participants were only older women. They were requested to complete a questionnaire measuring personality, subjective age, attitudes toward aging and physical self-perceptions. Following this, their walking speed and their muscular strength were investigated. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. In line with the literature, we extended the associations between extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness and walking speed and between conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness and muscular strength. Physical self-perceptions appear to be a robust mediator between personality traits and walking speed whereas attitudes toward aging and subjective age mediated the personality traits/muscular strength relationship. This study provides evidence, for the first time, that the associations between personality traits and physical capacities are different according to the physical capacities investigated. Based on these results, it could be interesting to adapt physical activity interventions to the psychological profile of older adults.

Memory and Personality Development in Adulthood: Evidence From Four Longitudinal Studies

OBJECTIVES

Personality traits have been related to concurrent memory performance. Most studies, however, have focused on personality as a predictor of memory; comparatively less is known about whether memory is related to personality development across adulthood. Using 4 samples, the present study tests whether memory level and change are related to personality change in adulthood.

METHOD

Participants were drawn from 2 waves of the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study Graduates (WLSG; N = 3,232, mean age = 64.28, SD = 0.65) and Wisconsin Longitudinal Study Siblings (WLSS; N = 1,570, mean age = 63.52, SD = 6.69) samples, the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS; N = 1,901, mean age = 55.43, SD = 10.98), and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; N = 6,038, mean age = 65.47, SD = 8.28). Immediate and delayed recall and the 5 major personality traits were assessed at baseline and follow-up.

RESULTS

There was heterogeneity in the associations across samples. A meta-analysis of latent change in the four samples indicated that lower baseline memory performance was related to an increase in neuroticism (B = -0.002; 95% CI = -0.004, -0.0008) and a decrease in agreeableness (B = 0.004; 95% CI = 0.002, 0.007) and conscientiousness (B = 0.005; 95% CI = 0.0008, 0.010). In addition, declines in memory were related to steeper declines in extraversion (B = 0.06; 95% CI = 0.003, 0.11), openness (B = 0.04; 95% CI = 0.007, 0.069), and conscientiousness (B = 0.05; 95% CI = 0.019, 0.09).

DISCUSSION

The present study indicates that poor memory and declines in memory over time are related to maladaptive personality change. These associations, however, were small and inconsistent across samples.

Conscientiousness, Activity Engagement, and Momentary Affect in Oldest-Old Adulthood

OBJECTIVES

Remaining engaged with life is a hallmark of aging well and pursuing personally meaningful activities is presumably important for late-life affect. We examined how moment-to-moment variability in meaning and degree of challenge ascribed to daily activities relate to positive and negative affect in very old adults. Possible moderating effects of between-person differences in conscientiousness on meaning-affect associations were also examined.

METHODS

Participants were 73 adults aged 89 years on average from the Australian Daily Life Time-Sampling module of the Australian Longitudinal Study of Aging. Participants provided self-report data on activity engagement (meaning and challenge associated with activities) and affect, on 5 occasions per day for a period of 7 consecutive days.

RESULTS

Within-person associations of activity meaning with affect varied as a function of within-person challenge ratings. Specifically, gains in positive affect associated with meaningful activity were more strongly evident when activities were regarded as more challenging. In contrast, meaningful activity was associated with higher negative affect when activities were regarded as more challenging and lower negative affect when activities were regarded as less challenging. Conscientiousness did not moderate associations of activity meaning with affect.

DISCUSSION

Our findings shed light on the intricate interplay between maintaining meaningful engagement and daily emotional experiences in very old age. We discuss theoretical and practical implications and consider the role of late-life conscientiousness for self- and emotion regulation.

Change in weight and personality in middle-aged and older adults

Objective: Personality is associated with weight change and the development of obesity across adulthood. The present study examines whether significant weight change, including weight loss and weight gain, is related to personality change in a large longitudinal sample of middle-aged and older adults.Design: Participants were adults aged 50-92 years (N > 5000; 59% women, Mean age = 65.51, SD = 8.20) drawn from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Personality, demographic, health and staff assessed weight and height were obtained at baseline and 8 years later.Main Outcome Measures: Personality traits.Results: Both weight loss and weight gain greater than 10% of baseline weight were related to a steeper decline in extraversion, openness and conscientiousness. Weight loss was further associated with the maintenance of neuroticism and to a steeper decline in agreeableness. This overall pattern of personality change was also associated with both unhealthy and healthy weight change. The associations were not moderated by BMI and generally remained significant after accounting for disease burden.Conclusion: The present study provides new evidence that both weight loss and weight gain are related to change in personality.

Associations Between Cognitive Abilities and 20-Year Personality Changes in Older Adults in the ILSE Study: Does Health Matter?

OBJECTIVES

We used data from the Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study on Adult Development (ILSE study) to investigate whether associations of cognitive abilities with late-life personality changes are moderated by individuals' physical health.

METHOD

Individuals born between 1930 and 1932 (n = 473; mean baseline age: 62.87 years) were assessed up to four times over a period of about 20 years (M = 20.34 years). Cognitive abilities were assessed based on multiple tests representing various cognitive functions. In addition, the Big Five personality traits were measured. Study participants' health was rated by a physician based on several in-depth medical examinations.

RESULTS

Health appeared as a significant moderator of the associations between cognitive abilities and personality trajectories: First, lower cognitive abilities were associated with an increase in neuroticism in individuals with poor health, but not in those with good health. Second, lower cognitive abilities were related with an increase in agreeableness in older adults with good health, but with a decrease in agreeableness among those with poor health. Third, better cognitive abilities were associated with stability in conscientiousness, but only among individuals with poorer health.

DISCUSSION

Our findings suggest that once health is compromised, cognitive abilities may become a compensatory resource to prevent undesirable personality changes.

Longitudinal Experience–Wide Association Studies—A Framework for Studying Personality Change

The importance of personality for predicting life outcomes in the domains of love, work, and health is well established, as is evidence that personality traits, while relatively stable, can change. However, little is known about the sources and processes that drive changes in personality traits and how such changes might impact important life outcomes. In this paper, we make the case that the research paradigms and methodological approaches commonly used in personality psychology need to be revised to advance our understanding of the sources and processes of personality change. We propose Longitudinal Experience–Wide Association Studies as a framework for studying personality change that can address the limitations of current methods, and we discuss strategies for overcoming some of the challenges associated with Longitudinal Experience–Wide Association Studies. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology

The interplay of personality and attitudes toward own aging across two decades of later life

Big Five personality traits are assumed to be linked with attitudes toward own aging. Since both constructs have central importance for the aging process, it is surprising that to our knowledge no study so far comprehensively addressed their mutual connection over time. We used data from the ILSE study, a longitudinal study capturing personality and attitudes toward own aging at four measurement occasions, spanning 20 years and including two participant cohorts in midlife (n = 501; born 1950-52) and later life (n = 500; born 1930-32). Dual latent change score models showed that personality was longitudinally related to change in attitudes toward own aging: Lower Neuroticism, higher Conscientiousness, and higher Openness predicted more positive attitudes, whereas the direction of the effect for Extraversion varied by time. Furthermore, the role of personality seems to be confined to certain sensitive periods in midlife and early old age. Contrary to our expectations, attitudes toward own aging had only marginal longitudinal impact on the Big Five. Our results shed light on the developmental co-dynamics of personality and subjective perceptions of aging across the second half of the lifespan.

Structural Brain Correlates of Loneliness among Older Adults

Ample evidence indicates that loneliness in old age is associated with poor bodily and mental health. However, little is known about structural cerebral correlates of loneliness in healthy older adults. We examined such correlates in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) subsample of 319 older adults aged 61 to 82 years drawn from the Berlin Aging Study II. Using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and structural equation modeling (SEM), latent hierarchical regression analyses were performed to examine associations of (i) loneliness, (ii) a range of covariates, and (iii) loneliness by covariate interactions with latent brain volume estimates of brain structures known to be involved in processing, expressing, and regulating emotions. Results from whole-brain VBM analyses showed that individuals with higher loneliness scores tended to have smaller gray matter volumes in three clusters comprising (i) the left amygdala/anterior hippocampus, (ii) the left posterior parahippocampus and (iii) the left cerebellum. Significant associations and interactions between loneliness and latent factors for the amygdala and the hippocampus were confirmed with a region-of-interest (ROI)-based approach. These findings suggest that individual differences in loneliness among older adults are correlated with individual differences in the volumes of brain regions that are central to cognitive processing and emotional regulation, also after correcting for confounders such as social network size. We discuss possible mechanisms underlying these associations and their implications.

General intelligence was associated with academic achievement but not fitness in adolescents after one year

AIM

This study investigated whether general intelligence could predict physical fitness and academic achievements one year later.

METHODS

We recruited 129 Spanish adolescents (57.4% boys) with a mean age of 13.6 ± 0.7 years old from a convenience sample of a single public-funded school. The first step was to assess general intelligence during the 2015-2016 school year using the D48 nonverbal test. A year later, we collected data on fitness and academic achievements. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured with the 20-m endurance shuttle run test, muscular strength with the standing long jump and flexibility with the sit and reach test. Academic achievement was measured using school grades. The findings were assessed using three models with different variables.

RESULTS

One year later, general intelligence at baseline was marginally significantly associated with flexibility (p = 0.079) and mathematics (p = 0.084) in the first model, with mathematics (p = 0.029) and geography and history (p = 0.016) in the second model and with geography and history (p = 0.022) in the third model. All the analyses were controlled by age, sex, fitness and academic achievement.

CONCLUSION

General intelligence may not predict fitness, but it may predict academic achievements in adolescents one year later. Further studies are needed to examine our findings.

The associations between objective and subjective health among older adults with type 2 diabetes: The moderating role of personality

BACKGROUND

Objective and subjective health are two powerful constructs which predict morbidity and mortality across a range of conditions including Type 2 Diabetes (T2D). Studies, however, suggest that these two constructs do not necessarily correlate, as some people with poor objective health perceive their health as good, while other people with good objective health perceive their health as poor. We seek to examine the role of personality as a moderator of the associations between objective and subjective health among older adults with T2D, who are likely to experience poor objective and subjective health due to their chronic medical condition.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study of 368 individuals with T2D (72 ± 4 years, 42% women), participating in the Israel Diabetes and Cognitive Decline Study. Personality was conceptualized using the five-factor model (agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism, openness). Objective health was operationalized by T2D-related clinical status, cognitive function, and motor ability. Subjective health was assessed using a single self-report question. Hayes' process macro was used for the moderation analyses.

RESULTS

The objective-subjective health associations were stronger among individuals with increased neuroticism (proportion of days covered: p = 0.02; cognitive function: p = 0.003; hand grip: p = 0.02; 3-m walk: p = 0.04) as well as decreased openness (cognitive status: p = 0.04) and agreeableness (3-m walk: p = 0.02).

DISCUSSION

Personality traits, and specifically neuroticism, can modify the associations between objective and subjective health in older adults with T2D. Findings contribute to the understanding of health as a multidimensional construct that encompasses medical and psychological aspects, especially among older adults with a chronic illness.

Feeling older, walking slower-but only if someone's watching. Subjective age is associated with walking speed in the laboratory, but not in real life

The huge inter-individual differences in how people age have prompted researchers to examine whether people's own perception of how old they are-their subjective age-could be a better predictor of relevant outcomes than their actual chronological age. Indeed, how old people feel does predict mortality hazards, and health-related measures such as walking speed may account for this association. In the present study, we extended this line of work by investigating whether subjective age also predicts walking speed and running speed in daily life or whether the predictive effects of subjective age for behavior manifest only within a controlled performance situation. We used data from 80 older participants (age range 62-82 years; M = 69.50, SD = 4.47) from the Berlin Aging Study II (BASE-II). Subjective age was assessed by self-report. Walking speed in the laboratory was measured with the Timed Up and Go test, and walking speed and running speed in real life were measured with an accelerometer. Results showed that compared to participants who felt older, those who felt younger than they actually were indeed walked faster in the laboratory, but they did not walk or run faster in real life. These patterns of results held when age, gender, education, BMI, comorbidity, depression, physical activity, and cognition were covaried. We discuss the role of stereotype threat in accounting for these results.

Personality Across the Life Span

Trait stability and maturation are fundamental principles of contemporary personality psychology and have been shown to hold across many cultures. However, it has proven difficult to move beyond these general findings to a detailed account of trait development. There are pervasive and unexplained inconsistencies across studies that may be due to ( a) insufficient attention to measurement error, ( b) subtle but age-sensitive differences in alternative measures of the same trait, or ( c) different perspectives reflected in self-reports and observer ratings. Multiscale, multimethod-and ideally multinational-studies are needed. Several hypotheses have been proposed to account for trait stability and change, but supporting evidence is currently weak or indirect; trait development is a fertile if sometimes frustrating field for theory and research. Beyond traits, there are approaches to personality development that are of interest to students of adult development, and these may be fruitfully addressed from a trait perspective.

Four-year reciprocal relationships between personality and functional ability in older adults with and without sensory impairment: focus on neuroticism and agreeableness

OBJECTIVES

Personality traits have been found to influence health and functional ability (FA) via multiple pathways. However, personality traits may also change in reaction to constraints in FA, particularly in more vulnerable individuals with high risk of decline in independent functioning in daily life (e.g. older adults with sensory impairment). Therefore, conceptually anchored in the World Health Organization's International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF model), this study investigated reciprocal relationships between personality, focusing on neuroticism and agreeableness, and indicators of FA (i.e. activities of daily living and subjective autonomy) as well as the potentially moderating role of sensory impairment status.

METHOD

The study sample consisted of 387 older adults (mean age at T1: M = 82.50 years, SD = 4.71 years) who were either sensory impaired (SI; i.e. visually or hearing impaired) or sensory unimpaired (UI). A total of 168 individuals were reassessed four years later.

RESULTS

Depending on sensory status, personality acted both as predictor and as outcome of FA. Neuroticism was more strongly related with later FA outcomes in SI than in UI individuals. FA variables, in turn, were significant predictors of later neuroticism in UI older adults only and of later agreeableness in SI individuals only.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that the late-life personality-FA interplay needs to be considered bidirectional, and the direction of associations varies systematically as a function of sensory impairment status.

Physical Activity and Personality Development over Twenty Years: Evidence from Three Longitudinal Samples

A physically inactive lifestyle is associated with maladaptive patterns of personality development over relatively short follow-up periods. The present study extends existing research by examining whether this association persists over 20 years. Participants (total N = 8,723) were drawn from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study Graduates and Siblings samples and the Midlife in the United States Study. Controlling for demographic factors and disease burden, baseline physical inactivity was related to steeper declines in conscientiousness in all three samples and a meta-analysis (β=-.06). The meta-analysis further showed that lower physical activity was associated with declines in openness (β=-.05), extraversion (β=-.03), and agreeableness (β=-.03). These findings provide evidence that a physically inactive lifestyle is associated with long-term detrimental personality trajectories.

Individual differences in personality change across the adult life span

OBJECTIVE

A precise and comprehensive description of personality continuity and change across the life span is the bedrock upon which theories of personality development are built. Little research has quantified the degree to which individuals deviate from mean-level developmental trends. In this study, we addressed this gap by examining individual differences in personality trait change across the life span.

METHOD

Data came from a nationally representative sample of 9,636 Dutch participants who provided Big Five self-reports at five assessment waves across 7 years. We divided our sample into 14 age groups (ages 16-84 at initial measurement) and estimated latent growth curve models to describe individual differences in personality change across the study period for each trait and age group.

RESULTS

Across the adult life span, individual differences in personality change were small but significant until old age. For Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Agreeableness, individual differences in change were most pronounced in emerging adulthood and decreased throughout midlife and old age. For Emotional Stability, individual differences in change were relatively consistent across the life span.

CONCLUSIONS

These results inform theories of life span development and provide future directions for research on the causes and conditions of personality change.

Personality and Frailty: Evidence From Four Samples

Frailty is a prevalent geriatric syndrome. Little is known about the psychological factors associated with this syndrome. Based on four large samples of older adults aged from 65 to 104 years old, the present study examined whether personality traits are related to frailty. High neuroticism, low conscientiousness, low extraversion, low openness and low agreeableness were related to higher frailty across samples. Longitudinal analysis conducted in one sample revealed that high neuroticism was associated with worsening frailty over an 8-year period. Higher frailty at baseline and over time was related to maladaptive personality changes. This study extends existing knowledge on the link between personality and health in older adults, by identifying the personality traits associated with frailty, a complex geriatric syndrome.

Life Events and Personality Trait Change

OBJECTIVE

Theory and research have emphasized the impact of life events on personality trait change. In this article, we review prospective research on personality trait change in response to nine major life events in the broader domains of love and work.

METHOD

We expected to find that life events lead to personality trait change to the extent that they have a lasting influence on individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Moreover, we predicted that love-related life events such as marriage or parenthood would be more strongly related to changes in traits that emphasize affective content, whereas work-related life events would be more likely to lead to change in traits that reflect behavioral or cognitive content.

RESULTS

The current state of research provided some evidence that life events can lead to changes in personality traits and that different life events may be differently related to specific trait domains.

CONCLUSIONS

A more general conclusion emerging from this review is that the evidence for the nature, shape, and timing of personality trait change in response to life events is still preliminary. We discuss the implications of the results for theory and research and provide directions for future studies on life events and personality trait change.