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Kazazoglou T, Panagiotou C, Mihailidou C, Kokkinopoulou I, Papadopoulou A, Moutsatsou P. Glutamine synthetase regulation by dexamethasone, RU486, and compound A in astrocytes derived from aged mouse cerebral hemispheres is mediated via glucocorticoid receptor. Mol Cell Biochem 2021; 476:4471-4485. [PMID: 34491525 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-021-04236-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) regulate astrocyte function, while glutamine synthetase (GS), an enzyme highly expressed in astrocytes, is one of the most remarkable GCs-induced genes. GCs mediate their effects through their cognate glucocorticoid receptor (GRα and GRβ isoforms); however, the mechanism via which these isoforms regulate GS activity in astrocytes remains unknown. We used dexamethasone (DEX), a classical GRα/GRβ agonist, RU486, which is a specific GRβ ligand, and Compound A, a known "dissociated" ligand, to delineate the mechanism via which GR modulates GS activity. Aged Mouse Cerebral Hemisphere astrocytes were treated with DEX (1 μM), RU486 (1 nM-1 μM) or compound A (10 μM), alone or in combination with DEX. GS activity and expression, GR isoforms (mRNA and protein levels), and GRα subcellular trafficking were measured. DEX increased GS activity in parallel with GRα nuclear translocation. RU486 increased GS activity in absence of GRα nuclear translocation implicating thus a role of GRβ-mediated mechanism compound A had no effect on GS activity implicating a GRα-GRE-mediated mechanism. None of the compounds affected whole-cell GRα protein content. DEX reduced GRα and GRβ mRNA levels, while RU486 increased GRβ gene expression. We provide evidence that GS activity, in astrocytes, is regulated via GRα- and GRβ-mediated pathways with important implications in pathological conditions in which astrocytes are involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodosia Kazazoglou
- 1st Department of Psychiatry, Eginition Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute "Costas Stefanis" (UMHRI), Athens, Greece
| | - Christina Panagiotou
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University General Hospital "ATTIKON", Rimini 1 str, Haidari, 12462, Athens, Greece
| | - Chrysovalantou Mihailidou
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Ioanna Kokkinopoulou
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University General Hospital "ATTIKON", Rimini 1 str, Haidari, 12462, Athens, Greece
| | - Anna Papadopoulou
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University General Hospital "ATTIKON", Rimini 1 str, Haidari, 12462, Athens, Greece
| | - Paraskevi Moutsatsou
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University General Hospital "ATTIKON", Rimini 1 str, Haidari, 12462, Athens, Greece.
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Joshi AKR, Kandlakunta B, Kotturu SK, Ghosh S. Antiglucocorticoid potential of nutraceuticals: In silico molecular docking and in vitro assessment. J Food Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Apurva Kumar Ramesh Joshi
- Food Chemistry Division; National Institute of Nutrition, Jamai-Osmania; Telangana Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - Bhaskarachary Kandlakunta
- Food Chemistry Division; National Institute of Nutrition, Jamai-Osmania; Telangana Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - Sandeep Kumar Kotturu
- Division of Molecular Biology; National Institute of Nutrition, Jamai-Osmania; Telangana Hyderabad 500007 India
| | - Sudip Ghosh
- Division of Molecular Biology; National Institute of Nutrition, Jamai-Osmania; Telangana Hyderabad 500007 India
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Wallace BD, Redinbo MR. Xenobiotic-sensing nuclear receptors involved in drug metabolism: a structural perspective. Drug Metab Rev 2012; 45:79-100. [PMID: 23210723 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2012.740049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Xenobiotic compounds undergo a critical range of biotransformations performed by the phase I, II, and III drug-metabolizing enzymes. The oxidation, conjugation, and transportation of potentially harmful xenobiotic and endobiotic compounds achieved by these catalytic systems are significantly regulated, at the gene expression level, by members of the nuclear receptor (NR) family of ligand-modulated transcription factors. Activation of NRs by a variety of endo- and exogenous chemicals are elemental to induction and repression of drug-metabolism pathways. The master xenobiotic sensing NRs, the promiscuous pregnane X receptor and less-promiscuous constitutive androstane receptor are crucial to initial ligand recognition, jump-starting the metabolic process. Other receptors, including farnesoid X receptor, vitamin D receptor, hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor, glucocorticoid receptor, liver X receptor, and RAR-related orphan receptor, are not directly linked to promiscuous xenobiotic binding, but clearly play important roles in the modulation of metabolic gene expression. Crystallographic studies of the ligand-binding domains of nine NRs involved in drug metabolism provide key insights into ligand-based and constitutive activity, coregulator recruitment, and gene regulation. Structures of other, noncanonical transcription factors also shed light on secondary, but important, pathways of control. Pharmacological targeting of some of these nuclear and atypical receptors has been instituted as a means to treat metabolic and developmental disorders and provides a future avenue to be explored for other members of the xenobiotic-sensing NRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bret D Wallace
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
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Sengupta S, Bisson WH, Mathew LK, Kolluri SK, Tanguay RL. Alternate glucocorticoid receptor ligand binding structures influence outcomes in an in vivo tissue regeneration model. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2012; 156:121-9. [PMID: 22634227 PMCID: PMC3758230 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2012.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2012] [Revised: 05/19/2012] [Accepted: 05/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Since their characterization, glucocorticoids (GCs), the most commonly prescribed immunomodulatory drugs, have undergone numerous structural modifications designed to enhance their activity. In vivo assessment of these corticosteroid analogs is essential to understand the difference in molecular signaling of the ligands that share the corticosteroid backbone. Our research identified a novel function of GCs as modulators of tissue regeneration and demonstrated that GCs activate the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) to inhibit early stages of tissue regeneration in zebrafish (Danio rerio). We utilized this phenomenon to assess the effect of different GC analogs on tissue regeneration and identified that some GCs such as beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) possess inhibitory properties, while others, such as dexamethasone and hydrocortisone have no effect on regeneration. We performed in silico molecular docking and dynamic studies and demonstrated that type and size of substitution at the C17 position of the cortisol backbone confer a unique stable conformation to GR on ligand binding that is critical for inhibitory activity. In the field of tissue regeneration, our study is one of the first Structure Activity Relationship (SAR) investigations performed in vertebrates demonstrating that the in vivo tissue regeneration model is a powerful tool to probe structure function relationships, to understand regenerative biology, and to assist in rational drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumitra Sengupta
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, the Environmental Health Sciences Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - William H. Bisson
- Pharmaceutical Biochemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lijoy K. Mathew
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, the Environmental Health Sciences Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Siva K. Kolluri
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, the Environmental Health Sciences Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Robert L. Tanguay
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, the Environmental Health Sciences Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
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Arterbery AS, Fergus DJ, Fogarty EA, Mayberry J, Deitcher DL, Lee Kraus W, Bass AH. Evolution of ligand specificity in vertebrate corticosteroid receptors. BMC Evol Biol 2011; 11:14. [PMID: 21232159 PMCID: PMC3025851 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-11-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Corticosteroid receptors include mineralocorticoid (MR) and glucocorticoid (GR) receptors. Teleost fishes have a single MR and duplicate GRs that show variable sensitivities to mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. How these receptors compare functionally to tetrapod MR and GR, and the evolutionary significance of maintaining two GRs, remains unclear. RESULTS We used up to seven steroids (including aldosterone, cortisol and 11-deoxycorticosterone [DOC]) to compare the ligand specificity of the ligand binding domains of corticosteroid receptors between a mammal (Mus musculus) and the midshipman fish (Porichthys notatus), a teleost model for steroid regulation of neural and behavioral plasticity. Variation in mineralocorticoid sensitivity was considered in a broader phylogenetic context by examining the aldosterone sensitivity of MR and GRs from the distantly related daffodil cichlid (Neolamprologus pulcher), another teleost model for neurobehavioral plasticity. Both teleost species had a single MR and duplicate GRs. All MRs were sensitive to DOC, consistent with the hypothesis that DOC was the initial ligand of the ancestral MR. Variation in GR steroid-specificity corresponds to nine identified amino acid residue substitutions rather than phylogenetic relationships based on receptor sequences. CONCLUSION The mineralocorticoid sensitivity of duplicate GRs in teleosts is highly labile in the context of their evolutionary phylogeny, a property that likely led to neo-functionalization and maintenance of two GRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam S Arterbery
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Daniel J Fergus
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Fogarty
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - John Mayberry
- Department of Mathematics, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA, 95211, USA
| | - David L Deitcher
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - W Lee Kraus
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Andrew H Bass
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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Visser K, Smith C, Louw A. Interplay of the inflammatory and stress systems in a hepatic cell line: interactions between glucocorticoid receptor agonists and interleukin-6. Endocrinology 2010; 151:5279-93. [PMID: 20881254 DOI: 10.1210/en.2010-0368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The liver plays an important role in inflammation and stress by producing the acute phase proteins (APPs) required for resolution of inflammation as well as by delivering systemic glucose, through gluconeogenesis, required to fuel the stress response. Disruption of the interplay between interleukin 6 (IL-6) and glucocorticoids (GCs), the peripheral mediators of inflammation and stress, respectively, may lead to side-effects associated with the pharmacological use of GCs. The current study investigated the interplay between IL-6 and GCs in a hepatoma cell line (BWTG3) at protein (protein activity assays, Western blotting, and ELISA) and mRNA (qPCR) levels. Specifically, the action of dexamethasone (Dex), a known antiinflammatory drug and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) agonist, is compared to that of Compound A (CpdA), a selective glucocorticoid receptor agonist (SEGRA). CpdA, like IL-6, but unlike Dex, increases GR binding and decreases the metabolic enzymes, tyrosine aminotransferase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and gamma glutamyltransferase, at protein or mRNA level. Like Dex, both CpdA and IL-6 increase the positive APPs, serum amyloid A and C-reactive protein, and decrease the negative APP, corticosteroid binding globulin. The study shows that the GC, Dex, and IL-6 generally have divergent effects on the GR and metabolic enzymes, while their functions are convergent on the APPs. In contrast to Dex, CpdA has effects convergent to that of IL-6 on the GR, metabolic enzymes, and APPs. Thus these findings suggest that CpdA, like Dex, modulates APPs, leading to effective control of inflammation, while, in contrast to Dex, it is less likely to lead to GC-induced side-effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koch Visser
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7600, Republic of South Africa
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Whitehouse MW. Anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid drugs: reflections after 60 years. Inflammopharmacology 2010; 19:1-19. [PMID: 21072600 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-010-0056-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 09/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review considers the problem of the serious concomitant side effects of powerful anti-inflammatory drugs modelled upon the principal human glucocorticoid hormone, cortisol. The very nature of the original bio-assays to validate their cortisol-like hormonal and anti-inflammatory activities ensured that pleiotropic toxins were selected for clinical studies. Other complicating factors have been (1) considerable reliance on bio-assays conducted in laboratory animals that primarily secrete corticosterone, not cortisol, as their principal anti-inflammatory adrenal hormone; (2) some differences in the binding of xenobiotic cortisol analogues (vis á vis cortisol) to transport proteins, detoxifying enzymes and even some intra-cellular receptors; (3) the "rogue" properties of these hormonal xenobiotics, acting independently of--but still able to suppress--hormonal mechanisms regulating endogenous cortisol; and (4) problems of intrinsic/acquired "steroid resistance", diminishing their clinical efficacy, but not necessarily all their toxicities. The rather gloomy conclusion is that devising new drugs to reproduce the effect of multi-potent hormones may be a recipe for disaster, in contexts other than simply remedying an endocrine deficiency. Promising new developments include "designed" combination therapies that allow some reduction in total steroid doses (and hopefully their side effects); sharpening strategies to limit the actual duration of steroid administration; and resurgent interest in searching for more selective analogues (both steroidal and non-steroid) with less harmful side effects. Some oversights and neglected areas of research are also considered. Overall, it now seems timely to engage in some drastic rethinking about (retaining?) these "licensed toxins" as fundamental therapies for chronic inflammation.
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Arterbery AS, Deitcher DL, Bass AH. Corticosteroid receptor expression in a teleost fish that displays alternative male reproductive tactics. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2010; 165:83-90. [PMID: 19524581 PMCID: PMC2783833 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2009.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2009] [Revised: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 06/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Corticosteroid signaling mechanisms mediate a wide range of adaptive physiological responses, including those essential to reproduction. Here, we investigated the presence and relative abundance of corticosteroid receptors during the breeding season in the plainfin midshipman fish (Porichthys notatus), a species that has two male reproductive morphs. Only type I "singing" males acoustically court females and aggressively defend a nest site, whereas type II "sneaker" males steal fertilizations from nesting type I males. Cloning and sequencing first identified glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR) receptors in midshipman that exhibited high sequence identity with other vertebrate GRs and MRs. Absolute-quantitative real-time PCR then revealed higher levels of GR in the central nervous system (CNS) of type II males than type I males and females, while GR levels in the sound-producing, vocal muscle and the liver were higher in type I males than type II males and females. MR expression was also greater in the CNS of type II males than type I males or females, but the differences were more modest in magnitude. Lastly, plasma levels of cortisol, the main glucocorticoid in teleosts, were 2- to 3-fold greater in type II males compared to type I males. Together, the results suggest a link between corticosteroid regulation and physiological and behavioral variation in a teleost fish that displays male alternative reproductive tactics.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Batrachoidiformes/genetics
- Batrachoidiformes/metabolism
- Batrachoidiformes/physiology
- Central Nervous System/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Liver/metabolism
- Male
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/chemistry
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/physiology
- Receptors, Mineralocorticoid/chemistry
- Receptors, Mineralocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Mineralocorticoid/physiology
- Receptors, Steroid/chemistry
- Receptors, Steroid/genetics
- Receptors, Steroid/physiology
- Reproduction/genetics
- Reproduction/physiology
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Sex Factors
- Sexual Behavior, Animal/physiology
- Testis/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam S Arterbery
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Spreafico M, Ernst B, Lill M, Smiesko M, Vedani A. Mixed‐Model QSAR at the Glucocorticoid Receptor: Predicting the Binding Mode and Affinity of Psychotropic Drugs. ChemMedChem 2009; 4:100-9. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200800274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Morena Spreafico
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel (Switzerland), Fax: (+41) 61‐267‐1552
| | - Beat Ernst
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel (Switzerland), Fax: (+41) 61‐267‐1552
| | - Markus A. Lill
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 (USA)
| | - Martin Smiesko
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel (Switzerland), Fax: (+41) 61‐267‐1552
| | - Angelo Vedani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel (Switzerland), Fax: (+41) 61‐267‐1552
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Katz M, Gans EH. Topical corticosteroids, structure-activity and the glucocorticoid receptor: discovery and development--a process of "planned serendipity". J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:2936-47. [PMID: 17975808 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
This is a personal recounting of the way in which the original steroid chemists and biologists worked closely together, often by trial and error, to use cortisol as the template to develop increasingly improved systemic glucocorticoids. In doing this, they learned how certain chemical functional groups affected efficacy and safety negatively and positively. When the more promising systemic glucocorticoids were subsequently applied topically, the skin barrier impaired their activity. This led to new research, this time employing in vitro percutaneous absorption evaluations coupled with in vivo vasoconstrictor studies, to screen and develop effective new topical delivery systems. A subsequent stage of this glucocorticoid research revealed that these molecules had to "fit" into receptor sites and the approximate spatial structure of such receptor sites. It also disclosed the way that the various chemical functional groups affected that "fit" and the resulting effect upon safety and efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Katz
- SYNYMED, Inc., 5 Whitney Court, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
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De Bosscher K, Van Craenenbroeck K, Meijer OC, Haegeman G. Selective transrepression versus transactivation mechanisms by glucocorticoid receptor modulators in stress and immune systems. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 583:290-302. [PMID: 18289525 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2007] [Revised: 09/28/2007] [Accepted: 11/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids control immune homeostasis and regulate stress responses in the human body to a large extent via the glucocorticoid receptor. This transcription factor can modulate gene expression either through direct DNA binding (mainly resulting in transactivation) or independent of DNA binding (in the majority of cases resulting in transrepression). The aim of this review is to discuss the mechanistic basis and applicability of different glucocorticoid receptor modulators in various affections, ranging from immune disorders to mental dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolien De Bosscher
- Laboratory of Eukaryotic Gene Expression & Signal Transduction (LEGEST), Department of Molecular Biology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
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van Oeveren A, Motamedi M, Mani NS, Marschke KB, López FJ, Schrader WT, Negro-Vilar A, Zhi L. Discovery of 6-N,N-Bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl)amino- 4-trifluoromethylquinolin-2(1H)-one as a Novel Selective Androgen Receptor Modulator. J Med Chem 2006; 49:6143-6. [PMID: 17034117 DOI: 10.1021/jm060792t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The androgen receptor is a member of the extended family of nuclear receptors and is widely distributed throughout the body. Androgen therapy is used to compensate for low levels of the natural hormones testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone and consists of administration of T, prodrugs thereof, or synthetic androgens. However, currently available androgens have many drawbacks. We identified 6-dialkylamino-4-trifluoromethylquinolin-2(1H)-ones as orally available tissue-selective androgen receptor modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjan van Oeveren
- Discovery Research, Ligand Pharmaceuticals Inc., 10275 Science Center Drive, San Diego, California 92121, USA.
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Abstract
The therapeutic and prophylactic use of glucocorticoids is widespread due to their powerful anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative and immunomodulatory activity. However, long-term use of these drugs can result in severe dose-limiting side effects. One of the most critical and debilitating side effects is osteoporosis, which leads to increased risk of fractures. Glucocorticoids damage bone through several different mechanisms. The search for novel glucocorticoids that have reduced side effects in bone and other tissues is being driven by the identification of new mechanisms of action of the glucocorticoid receptor. This may facilitate the detection of new, safer therapies with efficacies equivalent to currently prescribed steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey N Miner
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Ligand Pharmaceuticals, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Turk Rhen
- Department of Biology, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, USA
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