Estrogenic effect of the MEK1 inhibitor PD98059 on endogenous estrogen receptor alpha and beta

Multiple bioanalytical methods reveal a thyroid-disrupting mechanism related to the membrane receptor integrin αvβ3

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a manufactured chemical, is suitable for large-scale production and has extensive applications. Although restricted for use, DEHP is still ubiquitous in the environment and shows potential to disrupt the structure or function of the thyroid system. However, its toxic mechanism is complex and not clearly understood. In this study, a battery of methods was employed to investigate DEHP-induced thyroid-disrupting effects and their mechanism of action, focusing on a newly discovered membrane receptor-mediated mechanism. The results showed that DEHP promoted rat pituitary tumor (GH3) cell proliferation and c-fos gene expression at environment level concentrations (2 and 5 μmol/L) in a manner similar to that of the natural thyroid hormone 3,3',5-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3). The macromolecule DEHP-BSA cannot pass through the cell membrane to interact with nuclear receptors but upregulated the c-fos gene expression when administered at concentrations comparable to DEHP concentrations; molecular docking demonstrated that DEHP has affinity for the membrane receptor integrin α_vβ₃; DEHP at 2 μmol/L upregulated the β₃ gene expression in GH3 cells; after the addition of integrin α_vβ₃-inhibiting RGD peptide, DEHP-induced c-fos gene upregulation decreased. All of these findings support the supposition that DEHP-induced thyroid-disrupting effects might be mediated by the membrane receptor integrin α_vβ₃. Moreover, DEHP activated the downstream extracellular regulated protein kinase (ERK1/2) pathway, upregulating the gene expression of raf-1, MEK-1 and MAPK1 and increasing the protein levels of p-ERK; interestingly, ERK1/2 activation and c-fos upregulation induced by DEHP were attenuated by PD98059 (an ERK1/2 inhibitor). Taken together, the data suggest that the membrane receptor integrin α_vβ₃ and the downstream ERK1/2 pathway might be involved in DEHP-induced thyroid-disrupting effects. This study provides new insight into the thyroid-disrupting effect and the underlying mechanism and will advance the effort to construct adverse outcome pathways of DEHP and other thyroid hormone disrupting chemicals.

Current discovery strategies for hepatocellular carcinoma therapeutics

Introduction: The global incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is not expected to decline significantly over the next 30 years. And although the latest gene sequencing studies have established its genetic map, the potentially targetable drivers of HCC are, so far, difficult to identify. To date, only seven drugs have been approved by the FDA for unresectable HCC treatment; thus, effective therapeutic breakthroughs are still needed urgently.Areas covered: In this review, the authors discuss both genetic and epigenetic alterations in HCC and introduce the current progress with some of the representative molecular targeting inhibitors, listing some of the approved drugs for the targets of HCC. The structure-activity relationship of molecules (e.g. thalidomide, bortezomil) used for HCC is also discussed.Expert opinion: Effective therapeutic targets and effective drugs for HCC treatment are an urgent unmet need. Better understanding and characterization of genetic and epigenetic alterations, which are important to hepatocarcinogenesis, may help to understand the molecular pathogenesis of HCC, as well as provide novel therapeutic lead compounds for HCC treatment.

Role of BRAF in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Rationale for Future Targeted Cancer Therapies

The few therapeutic strategies for advance hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) on poor knowledge of its biology. For several years, sorafenib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) inhibitor, has been the approved treatment option, to date, for advanced HCC patients. Its activity is the inhibition of the retrovirus-associated DNA sequences protein (RAS)/Rapidly Accelerated Fibrosarcoma protein (RAF)/mitogen-activated and extracellular-signal regulated kinase (MEK)/extracellular-signal regulated kinases (ERK) signaling pathway. However, the efficacy of sorafenib is limited by the development of drug resistance, and the major neuronal isoform of RAF, BRAF and MEK pathways play a critical and central role in HCC escape from TKIs activity. Advanced HCC patients with a BRAF mutation display a multifocal and/or more aggressive behavior with resistance to TKI. Moreover, also long non-coding RNA (lnc-RNA) have been studied in epigenetic studies for BRAF aggressiveness in HCC. So far, lnc-RNA of BRAF could be another mechanism of cancer proliferation and TKI escape in HCC and the inhibition could become a possible strategy treatment for HCC. Moreover, recent preclinical studies and clinical trials evidence that combined treatments, involving alternative pathways, have an important role of therapy for HCC and they could bypass resistance to the following TKIs: MEK, ERKs/ribosomal protein S6 kinase 2 (RSK2), and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). These initial data must be confirmed in clinical studies, which are currently ongoing. Translational research discoveries could create new strategies of targeted therapy combinations, including BRAF pathway, and they could eventually bring light in new treatment of HCC.

DnBP-induced thyroid disrupting activities in GH3 cells via integrin αvβ3 and ERK1/2 activation

Di-n-butylphthalate (DnBP) exhibits alarming thyroid disrupting activities. However, the toxic mechanism of DnBP is not completely understood. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of DnBP in thyroid disruption. Rat pituitary tumor cell lines (GH3) were treated with DnBP in different scenarios, and cell viabilities, target gene transcriptions and protein levels were measured accordingly. The results showed that after treatment with DnBP (20 μmol/L), cell proliferation increased to 114.69% (p < 0.01) and c-fos gene was up-regulated by 1.57-fold (p < 0.01). Both nuclear thyroid hormone receptor β (TRβ) and membrane TR (integrin α_v and integrin β₃) genes were up-regulated by 1.31-, 1.08- and 2.39-fold (p < 0.01), respectively, the latter was inhibited by Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptides; the macromolecular DnBP-BSA was unable to bind nuclear TRs, but still promoted cell proliferation to 104.18% and up-regulated c-fos by 2.99-fold (p < 0.01); after silencing TRβ gene, cell proliferation (106.64%, p < 0.05) and up-regulation of c-fos (1.23-fold, p < 0.01) were also observed. All of these findings indicated the existence of non-genomic pathway for DnBP-induced thyroid disruption. Finally, DnBP activated the downstream extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK1/2) pathway, up-regulating Mapk1 (1.15-, p < 0.05), Mapk3 (1.26-fold, p < 0.01) and increasing protein levels of p-ERK (p < 0.01); notably, DnBP-induced ERK1/2 activation along with c-fos up-regulation were attenuated by PD98059 (ERK1/2 inhibitor). Taken together, it could be suggested that integrin α_vβ₃ and ERK1/2 pathway play significant roles in DnBP-induced thyroid disruption, and this novel mechanism warrants further investigation in living organisms.

MAPK signaling has stage-dependent osteogenic effects on human adipose-derived stem cells in vitro

OVERVIEW

The use of pro-osteogenic growth factors, such as BMP2, in human adipose-derived stem cell (ASC) osteogenesis is well described. Because these growth factors work via signal transduction pathways, such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, a study of the relationship between MAPK signaling and ASC osteogenesis was conducted.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ERK, JNK, and p38MAPK activation were measured in ASCs osteo-induced using either dexamethasone or vitamin D3 and correlated with mineralization. Activation and mineralization were also measured without dexamethasone or using the glucocorticoid, cortisone. The expression of the MAPK phosphatase, MKP1, and its relationship to mineralization was also assessed. The effect of decreasing MAPK activation on mineralization through the use of exogenous inhibitors was examined along with siRNA-knockdown and adenoviral overexpression of ERK1/2. Finally, the effect of ERK1/2 overexpression on ASCs induced on PLGA scaffolds was assessed.

RESULTS

ASC mineralization in dexamethasone or vitamin D3-induced ASCs correlated with both increased ERK1/2 and JNK1/2 activation. ASCs induced without dexamethasone also mineralized, with JNK1/2 signaling possibly mediating this event. No link between cortisone induction and MAPK signaling could be ascertained. ASCs treated with ERK, JNK, or p38MAPK inhibitors showed decreased osteogenic gene expression and diminished mineralization. Mineralization levels were also affected by viruses designed to inhibit or augment ERK1/2 expression and activity. Finally, ASC mineralization appeared to be a balance between the MAPK kinase activity and MKP1.

CONCLUSIONS

It is likely that MAPK signaling plays a significant role in ASC osteogenesis, affecting differentiation in kinase- and stage-specific manners.

Chromatin organization regulated by EZH2-mediated H3K27me3 is required for OPN-induced migration of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Osteopontin (OPN) is a chemokine-like extracellular matrix-associated protein involved in the migration of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). An increasing number of studies have found that chromatin organization may affect cellular migration. However, whether OPN regulates chromatin organization is not understood, nor are the underlying molecular mechanisms. In this study, we investigated the link between chromatin organization and BMSC migration and demonstrated that OPN-mediated BMSC migration leads to elevated levels of heterochromatin marker histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) through the methyltransferase EZH2. The expression of EZH2 reorganizes the chromatin structure of BMSCs. Pharmacological inhibition or depletion of EZH2 blocks BMSC migration. Moreover, using an atomic force microscope (AFM), we found that chromatin decondensation alters the mechanical properties of the nucleus. In addition, inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signals represses OPN-promoted chromatin condensation and cell migration. Thus, our results identify a mechanism by which ERK1/2 signalling drives specific chromatin modifications in BMSCs, which alters chromatin organization and thereby enables OPN-mediated BMSC migration.

Targeting the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma

Although the biological basis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unclear, effective treatments and improvement of the survival rate remain worthwhile research goals. Abnormal protein signaling pathways contributing to uncontrolled cell proliferation, differentiation, survival and apoptosis are biomarkers of the carcinogenic process. Certain mutated components or overexpression of the rat sarcoma virus (Ras)/rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (Raf)/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway are increasingly being studied in HCC carcinogenesis. The present review addresses the effect of the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signaling pathway on the pathogenesis of HCC, and provides an update on the preclinical and clinical development of various inhibitors targeting this core signaling pathway, which include various Ras inhibitors, Raf inhibitors and MEK inhibitors for HCC.

A precisely substituted benzopyran targets androgen refractory prostate cancer cells through selective modulation of estrogen receptors

Dietary consumption of phytoestrogens like genistein has been linked with lower incidence of prostate cancer. The estradiol-like benzopyran core of genistein confers estrogen receptor-β (ER-β) selectivity that imparts weak anti-proliferative activity against prostate cancer cells. DL-2-[4-(2-piperidinoethoxy)phenyl]-3-phenyl-2H-1-benzopyran (BP), a SERM designed with benzopyran core, targeted androgen independent prostate cancer (PC-3) cells 14-times more potently than genistein, ~25% more efficiently than tamoxifen and 6.5-times more actively than ICI-182780, without forfeiting significant specificity in comparison to genistein. BP increased apoptosis (annexin-V and TUNEL labeling), arrested cell cycle, and significantly increased caspase-3 activity along with mRNA expressions of estrogen receptor (ER)-β and FasL (qPCR) in PC-3 cells. In classical ERE-luc reporter assay BP behaved as a potent ER-α antagonist and ER-β agonist. Accordingly, it decreased expression of ER-α target PS2 (P<0.01) and increased expression of ER-β target TNF-α (P<0.05) genes in PC-3. ER-β deficient PC-3 (siRNA-transfected) was resistant to apoptotic and anti-proliferative actions of SERMs, including stimulation of FasL expression by BP. BP significantly inhibited phosphorylation of Akt and ERK-1/2, JNK and p38 in PC-3 (immunoblotting), and thus adopted a multi-pathway mechanism to exert a more potent anti-proliferative activity against prostate cancer cells than natural and synthetic SERMs. Its precise ER-subtype specific activity presents a unique lead structure for further optimization.

Multi-walled carbon nanotube length as a critical determinant of bioreactivity with primary human pulmonary alveolar cells

Multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) length is suggested to critically determine their pulmonary toxicity. This stems from in vitro and in vivo rodent studies and in vitro human studies using cell lines (typically cancerous). There is little data using primary human lung cells. We addressed this knowledge gap, using highly relevant, primary human alveolar cell models exposed to precisely synthesized and thoroughly characterized MWCNTs. In this work, transformed human alveolar type-I-like epithelial cells (TT1), primary human alveolar type-II epithelial cells (ATII) and alveolar macrophages (AM) were treated with increasing concentrations of MWCNTs before measuring cytotoxicity, inflammatory mediator release and MAP kinase signalling. Strikingly, we observed that short MWCNTs (~0.6 µm in length) induced significantly greater responses from the epithelial cells, whilst AM were particularly susceptible to long MWCNTs (~20 µm). These differences in the pattern of mediator release were associated with alternative profiles of JNK, p38 and ERK1/2 MAP kinase signal transduction within each cell type. This study, using highly relevant target human alveolar cells and well defined and characterized MWCNTs, shows marked cellular responses to the MWCNTs that vary according to the target cell type, as well as the aspect ratio of the MWCNT.