Physiological and Pathological Relevance of Human Uterine LH/hCG Receptors

Reproduction-Associated Hormones and Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

The levels of reproduction-associated hormones in females, such as estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, and oxytocin, change dramatically during pregnancy and postpartum. Reproduction-associated hormones can affect adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN), thereby regulating mothers' behavior after delivery. In this review, we first briefly introduce the overall functional significance of AHN and the methods commonly used to explore this front. Then, we attempt to reconcile the changes of reproduction-associated hormones during pregnancy. We further update the findings on how reproduction-related hormones influence adult hippocampal neurogenesis. This review is aimed at emphasizing a potential role of AHN in reproduction-related brain plasticity and its neurobiological relevance to motherhood behavior.

Clomiphene citrate impairs the endometrial CD98 expression in ovariectomized and non-ovariectomized rats: Role of HCG

Background

Clomiphene citrate (CC) is one of the widely used drugs as an ovulation stimulant, but its adverse effects on the endometrium results in lowering down the pregnancy rate. Endometrium CD98 is also important in the process of implantation.

Objective

To evaluate the immunohistochemistry expression levels of endometrial CD98 following injection of CC with and without Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in ovariectomized and non-ovariectomized rats.

Materials and Methods

Seventy two (12-14 wk old) female Wistar rats were randomly divided into two groups (n = 36): (a) ovariectomized and (b) non-ovariectomized. Each group was further divided into six subgroups (n = 6/each): (1) CC 10 mg/kg, (2) CC 20 mg/kg, (3) HCG, (4) CC 10 mg/kg with HCG, (5) CC 20 mg/kg with HCG, and (6) control. The experimental subgroups received a single dose of CC (daily, five days) and HCG (after the last injection of CC) alone or in combination. Immunohistochemistry staining was performed on paraffin-embedded endometrial tissues to evaluate the expression levels of CD98.

Results

Animals undergoing ovariectomy presented a significantly lower expression level of endometrial CD98 (p < 0.001) when compared with non-ovariectomized in the same condition that groups were subdivided. There was also a dose-dependent reduction (p < 0.001) in the expression of CD98 in non-ovariectomized subgroups when compared with control group. In addition, injection of HCG following treatment with CC improved its expression.

Conclusion

It was concluded that CC impairs CD98 expression in endometrium and this impairment is intensified with the removal of the ovary. Also, an injection of HCG following treatment with CC can slightly improve the expression of CD98.

Purple Potato Extract Promotes Intestinal Epithelial Differentiation and Barrier Function by Activating AMP-Activated Protein Kinase

SCOPE

Perturbation of gut epithelial barrier function induces inflammation and other health problems that originate from the gut. Purple potato contains a high content of beneficial polyphenolic compounds. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of purple potato extract (PPE) on intestinal differentiation and barrier function, and explore its underlying mechanism using Caco-2 cells and ex vivo cultured gut tissues.

METHODS AND RESULTS

PPE increases transepithelial electrical resistance and decreases FITC-dextran paracellular flux in Caco-2 cells, which are associated with strengthened intestinal epithelial differentiation in both Caco-2 cells and ex vivo guts. Furthermore, PPE treatment enhances AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity, concomitant with the increased expression of CDX2, a key transcriptional factor regulating intestinal epithelial differentiation. Knocking out AMPK using CRISPR/Cas9 system abolishes the positive effects of PPE on intestinal epithelial differentiation and barrier function, in junction with the reduced expression of CDX2.

CONCLUSION

PPE improves gut epithelial differentiation and barrier function via activating AMPK, indicating that PPE, as well as associated purple potato consumption, could be used as a supportive dietary therapeutic strategy for improving gut epithelial health.

Expression of sex hormone receptors in juvenile angiofibromas and antiproliferative effects of receptor modulators

BACKGROUND

Predilection of juvenile angiofibromas in adolescent boys has prompted the hypothesis of hormone-dependent tumor growth. However, knowledge on expression and function of sex hormone receptors in juvenile angiofibromas is still sparse and inconsistent.

METHODS

Transcript and protein expression of sex hormone receptors in juvenile angiofibromas was studied by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunohistology/fluorescence. A bromodeoxyuridine assay was used to assess the antiproliferative effects of flutamide (androgen receptor antagonist) and tamoxifen (estrogen receptor modulator).

RESULTS

Significantly increased transcript levels were observed for androgen receptor, estrogen receptor α, follicle-stimulating hormone receptor, and luteinizing hormone receptor in juvenile angiofibromas versus the stroma of nasal mucosa. Estrogen receptor β and progesterone receptor mRNA levels were low and similar for both tissues. Estrogen receptor α protein was detected in juvenile angiofibroma tumors and mesenchymal cell lines. Flutamide and tamoxifen inhibited proliferation of cultured juvenile angiofibroma mesenchymal cells.

CONCLUSION

These findings contribute to the understanding of juvenile angiofibroma pathophysiology and offer novel therapeutic options.

hCG, the wonder of today's science

BACKGROUND

hCG is a wonder. Firstly, because hCG is such an extreme molecule. hCG is the most acidic glycoprotein containing the highest proportion of sugars. Secondly, hCG exists in 5 common forms. Finally, it has so many functions ranging from control of human pregnancy to human cancer. This review examines these molecules in detail.

CONTENT

These 5 molecules, hCG, sulfated hCG, hyperglycosylated hCG, hCG free beta and hyperglycosylated free beta are produced by placental syncytiotrophoblast cells and pituitary gonadotrope cells (group 1), and by placental cytotrophoblast cells and human malignancies (group 2). Group 1 molecules are both hormones that act on the hCG/LH receptor. These molecules are central to human menstrual cycle and human pregnancy. Group 2 molecules are autocrines, that act by antagonizing a TGF beta receptor. These molecules are critical to all advanced malignancies.

CONCLUSIONS

The hCG groups are molecules critical to both the molecules of pregnancy or human life, and to the advancement of cancer, or human death.

Biological functions of hCG and hCG-related molecules

BACKGROUND

hCG is a term referring to 4 independent molecules, each produced by separate cells and each having completely separate functions. These are hCG produced by villous syncytiotrophoblast cells, hyperglycosylated hCG produced by cytotrophoblast cells, free beta-subunit made by multiple primary non-trophoblastic malignancies, and pituitary hCG made by the gonadotrope cells of the anterior pituitary.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

hCG has numerous functions. hCG promotes progesterone production by corpus luteal cells; promotes angiogenesis in uterine vasculature; promoted the fusion of cytotrophoblast cell and differentiation to make syncytiotrophoblast cells; causes the blockage of any immune or macrophage action by mother on foreign invading placental cells; causes uterine growth parallel to fetal growth; suppresses any myometrial contractions during the course of pregnancy; causes growth and differentiation of the umbilical cord; signals the endometrium about forthcoming implantation; acts on receptor in mother's brain causing hyperemesis gravidarum, and seemingly promotes growth of fetal organs during pregnancy. Hyperglycosylated hCG functions to promote growth of cytotrophoblast cells and invasion by these cells, as occurs in implantation of pregnancy, and growth and invasion by choriocarcinoma cells. hCG free beta-subunit is produced by numerous non-trophoblastic malignancies of different primaries. The detection of free beta-subunit in these malignancies is generally considered a sign of poor prognosis. The free beta-subunit blocks apoptosis in cancer cells and promotes the growth and malignancy of the cancer. Pituitary hCG is a sulfated variant of hCG produced at low levels during the menstrual cycle. Pituitary hCG seems to mimic luteinizing hormone actions during the menstrual cycle.

HCG--A new kid on the block in prematurity prevention

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is a molecule with multiple endocrine, paracrine, and immunoregulatory actions. Its importance for the enhancement of fertility, successful implantation, and survival of the conceptus in early gestation is recognized. However, studies conducted worldwide in recent years indicate that HCG may also play a significant role in maintaining pregnancy well after the first trimester. Emerging evidence suggests that different biomolecular and physiologic effects of HCG are concordantly directed toward inhibition of myometrial contractility to maintain pregnancy. These studies have prompted preliminary animal and human testing of HCG for the prevention of preterm birth. This article reviews the current knowledge as well as the future perspectives on HCG as a useful new tool in prematurity prevention.