Trifecta nerve complex: potential anatomical basis for microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord for chronic orchialgia

Stripping versus ligation of vas deferens in microscopic denervation of spermatic cord in men with chronic orchialgia: A multicenter study

BACKGROUND

Microdenervation of the spermatic cord (MSCD) is an effective treatment modality for men with intractable scrotal content pain. For patients not interested in preserving fertility, some centers advocate ligation of the vas during denervation, while others prefer stripping of the vas deferens to preserve the vasal artery, hence preserving vasculature to the testis and possibly decreasing post-operative congestion pain.

OBJECTIVE

To compare outcomes of patients with chronic orchialgia, who underwent MSCD by either stripping or ligating the vas deferens.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective chart review of 85 patients who underwent MSCD from 2017-2023 was performed. Patients' demographics including history of prior surgical procedures were recorded. Response to surgery was evaluated as either complete resolution of pain, partial resolution of pain, or no improvement in pain.

RESULTS

Eighty-five patients underwent MSCD with a median (interquartile range, IQR) age of 36 (25.5-46.5) years and median duration of pain of 16 (6-31) months. Thirty-seven patients underwent stripping of vas, while 48 underwent ligation of vas during MSCD. Median follow up was 12 months. Twenty-one (43.5%) patients had prior inguinal scrotal surgery in the ligation group compared to 5 (13.5%) in the stripping group, p = 0.003. The etiology of pain was similar between the groups. The response to MSCD between the two groups was similar, 67.6% of patients who underwent stripping had complete resolution of pain versus 66.7% of those who had ligation (p = 0.968), with similar rates of post-operative complications (p-value = 0.132).

CONCLUSIONS

In men with intractable chronic scrotal content pain with no interest in preserving fertility, ligation, or stripping of the vas deferens yields similar outcomes with regard to pain resolution. Both techniques are safe with no reports of any testicular atrophy.

A simplified treatment algorithm for chronic scrotal content pain syndrome

Background

Chronic scrotal content pain (CSCP) is a devastating condition characterized by localized scrotal pain that persists for ≥ 3 months and interferes with daily activities. Approximately 2.5% of all urology outpatient visits are associated with CSCP. General urologists may have difficulty treating these patients because of uncertainties regarding the etiology and pathophysiology of CSCP. Therefore, we aimed to provide a simplified diagnostic and treatment approach for CSCP by subdividing it into distinct categories.

Materials and methods

We systematically reviewed the published literature in the PubMed, MEDLINE, and Cochrane databases for all reports on CSCP diagnosis and treatment using the keywords "chronic scrotal content pain," "testicular pain," "orchialgia," "testicular pain syndrome," "microdenervation of the spermatic cord," "post-vasectomy pain syndrome," "post-inguinal hernia repair pain," "testialgia," and "pudendal neuralgia." This review included only CSCP-related articles published in English language.

Results

We subdivided CSCP syndrome into 5 clinical presentation types, including hyperactive cremasteric reflex, pain localized in the testicles, pain in the testis, spermatic cord, and groin, pain localized in the testicles, spermatic cord, groin, and pubis, and pain in the testicles, spermatic cord/groin, and penis/pelvis. Treatments were adjusted stepwise for each type and section. We included more information regarding the role of pudendal neuroglia in CSCP syndrome and discussed more options for nerve blocks for CSCP. For microsurgical spermatic cord denervation failure, we included treatment options for salvage ultrasound-guided targeted cryoablation, Botox injections, and posterior-inferior scrotal denervation.

Conclusions

Different CSCP subtypes could help general urologists assess the appropriate diagnostic and treatment approaches for scrotal pain management in daily practice.

Scrotal Pain after Varicocelectomy: A Narrative Review

Varicocele is a frequently encountered urological disorder, which has a prevalence rate of 8 to 15% among healthy men. However, the incidence is higher in male patients with primary or secondary infertility, with up to 35 to 80% of varicocele cases occurring in this population. The clinical manifestations of varicocele typically include the presence of an asymptomatic mass that feels like a “bag of worms”, chronic scrotal pain, and infertility. Most patients with varicocele only undergo varicocelectomy after conservative treatments have failed. Unfortunately, some patients may still experience persistent scrotal pain due to a recurrence of varicocele, the development of hydrocele, neuralgia, referred pain, ureteral lesions, or nutcracker syndrome. Therefore, clinicians should consider these conditions as potential causes of postoperative scrotal pain, and take measures to address them. Several factors can assist in predicting surgical outcomes for patients with varicocele. Clinicians should consider these factors when deciding whether to perform surgery and what type of surgical intervention to use. By doing so, they can increase the likelihood of a successful surgical outcome and minimize the risk of complications such as postoperative scrotal pain.

Chronic scrotal content pain: the experiences of patients undergoing microsurgical spermatic cord denervation

Background

Chronic scrotal content pain, sometimes referred to as chronic orchialgia, is a common urological condition that gives rise to persistent and often severe painful stimuli to the scrotum and surrounding structures. Despite its relative commonality, accounting for over 2% of urological visits, chronic scrotal content pain is complex to manage and patients may be required to access multiple providers and undergo invasive procedures, including microsurgical spermatic cord denervation (MSCD) surgery.

Objective

The objective of this study was to understand the experiences and perspectives of persons with chronic scrotal content pain and accessing MSCD surgery.

Design

An exploratory qualitative design, guided by interpretive description and integrated knowledge translation, was adopted.

Methods

We conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with six patients with chronic scrotal content pain who underwent MSCD surgery in a surgical center in Western Canada. Data were analyzed thematically.

Results

Analysis of the study data resulted in three core themes: living with chronic scrotal content pain, quality of life, and MSCD procedure and outcomes. We highlight the debilitating nature of pain and the broad impacts upon health, quality of life, and social functioning. Participants described how MSCD surgery offered an effective solution for persistent and debilitating pain. For the participants, MSCD surgery offered hope and the chance to regain their normality.

Conclusion

For those with chronic scrotal content pain, access to a pain specialist, along with the adoption of a biopsychosocial approach to pain and early access to MSCD surgery, may improve patient experiences and outcomes. Considering the high prevalence of urological pain, greater interdisciplinary care is needed in order to support more effective and timely management.

Robotic Surgery for Male Infertility and Chronic Scrotal Content Pain

Robot-assisted microsurgery is a trending approach for the treatment of male infertility and chronic scrotal pain. The advantages seem to include increased optical magnification, improved surgical efficiency, absent tremor, and similar outcomes with standard methods. This chapter covers robotic microsurgical application and techniques for: robot-assisted vasectomy reversal with vasovasostomy and vasoepididymostomy, varicocelectomy, microsurgical testicular sperm extraction, and targeted denervation of the spermatic cord.

Chronic scrotal pain: Pathogenesis, clinical phenotypes and modern treatment concept (clinical lecture)

Chronic scrotal pain (CSP) is a general term, which defines variety of problems causing discomfort or pain in the scrotum, which can be caused by the problems with testicles and other structures of the scrotum: epididymis, vas deferens, paratesticular structures. For a practicing urologist, the diagnosis and treatment of chronic scrotal pain is always a difficult task due to the many reasons for its appearance and the variety of clinical symptoms. CSP is a widespread but poorly understood condition, the etiology of which often can not be identified. Pain localized in the scrotum makes up 38.8 % of all cases of chronic men’s pelvic pain. From 2.5 to 4.8 % of all visits to the urologist relate to CSP syndrome. Primary scrotal pain syndrome is not associated with infection or other local pathological processes that could cause pain. The treatment of chronic scrotal pain is challenging because the pain often does not react to the traditional treatments.

The purpose of this lecture is to draw the attention of urologists, general practitioners, and everyone who is interested in the problem of treating chronic scrotal pain to the possibilities of modern medicine in solving this multidisciplinary problem.

Men With Chronic Orchialgia Exhibit Differential Neuroinflammatory Gene Expression Relative to Asymptomatic Controls

OBJECTIVE

To identify differences in neuroinflammatory gene expression in individuals with chronic orchialgia (CO) compared to asymptomatic controls.

METHODS

Vas deferens, spermatic cord fascia, blood, and urine were collected from 9 men with CO at time of microscopic spermatic cord denervation and 7 asymptomatic controls at time of vasectomy. RNA was isolated and analyzed with the NanoString Human Neuroinflammation panel. Data were normalized, gene expression fold changes and enriched pathways relative to asymptomatic controls were determined. Gene expression was considered significantly different if there was a >2-fold change and P-value <.05 relative to controls.

RESULTS

Mean patient age was 51 years and median symptom duration 12 months. There were 26 genes with significantly differential expression in vas deferens. cFos, a marker of nociceptive pain, had the greatest difference (30.2-fold change, P <.000001). Enriched pathways in vas deferens included nerve function, matrix remodeling, and innate immune responses. In fascia, cFos also had the greatest differential expression (38-fold, P = .000002), followed by S100A12 (11-fold, inducer of innate immune response). Enriched pathways in fascia included nerve function and inflammation. In blood, there were no differentially expressed genes, and in urine there were 95 differentially expressed genes.

CONCLUSION

Men with CO have a diverse set of neuroinflammatory genes with differential expression in tissue and urine relative to healthy controls. These findings confirm pathologic changes in tissue targeted by denervation surgery, and suggest molecular changes in neuropathic pain that could lead to biomarker identification and novel treatment.

Postvaricocele Embolization Pain Syndrome: A Case Series Report and Review of Current Treatment Strategies

BACKGROUND

Orchialgia is not an uncommon complaint among men with varicocele, but postvaricocele embolization-related testicular pain has not been widely investigated. This study evaluates the phenomenon of postvaricocele embolization pain (PVEP) syndrome and examines the current strategies to treat this unusual complication.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A prospectively collected database of patients with PVEP who presented to a tertiary center was analyzed between January 2011 and January 2020 following internal ethics approval. Patient demographics, including other complications related to embolization, analgesic requirements, and pain scores (on a 10-point visual analog score), treatment strategies, Patient Global Impression of Improvement (PGI-I) score and overall satisfaction score (on a 5-point scale), were reviewed. All patients were reviewed for a minimum of 12 months.

RESULTS

A total of 20 men with a mean age of 33.8 (18-45) years old, presented with PVEP over 10 years. Most men received embolization on an average of 26.6 (18-48) months. The reasons for varicocele embolization include either isolated or combined orchialgia (15 men), subfertility (5 men), and cosmesis (6 men). Eighteen (90%) men underwent microscopic spermatic cord denervation (MSCD) and 2 patients elected for conservative measures. The average pain scores pre-MSCD and post-MSCD were 6.9 (4-9) and 1.4 (0-4) (p<0.001) with a significant reduction in analgesia requirements. Immediate improvement in pain score was reported in all the patients and this persisted at the 12 months review. Most men reported a high satisfaction score (of 4/5) and only one patient reported no change in symptoms after MSCD.

CONCLUSION

PVEP is a unique complication and patients should be counseled on the potential risk of persistent orchialgia following embolization for varicocele. The MSCD appears to be an effective treatment option with high success and satisfaction rates.

Surgical management of chronic scrotal pain: a review of the current literature

Chronic scrotal pain may be due to an identifiable cause, may be multifactorial, or may be idiopathic. Successful treatment often requires multimodal therapy with a multidisciplinary approach. Conservative options may be offered initially, but if symptoms fail to improve with conservative interventions, more invasive therapies may be required. A nerve block may be attempted and patients who experience improvement in pain following nerve blocks may be good candidates for surgical denervation of the spermatic cord. Alternative surgical treatment options including proximal nerve blocks, neuromodulation, cryoablation, vasectomy reversal, varicocelectomy, and even orchiectomy have been described. The aim of this review is to discuss the treatment options for chronic scrotal pain with a focus on surgical treatment options.

Microsurgical Denervation of the Spermatic Cord: A Historical Perspective and Recent Developments

INTRODUCTION

The management of chronic scrotal pain is long and varied, with historical treatment algorithms typically ending with orchiectomy. Microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord (MDSC) is a testicle-sparing option for patients who have failed conservative treatment options and over its forty-year history has seen many technical refinements.

OBJECTIVES

To review the history and development of MDSC and discuss the outcomes of different surgical techniques.

METHODS

A literature review using PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted to identify studies pertaining to surgical treatment of CSP, MDSC, and outcomes. Search terms included "chronic," "scrotal pain," "orchialgia," "spermatic cord," "denervation," and "microsurgery."

RESULTS

We included 21 case reports and series since the first seminal paper describing MDSC technique in 1978. Additional studies that challenged existing conventions or described novel techniques are also discussed. The current standard procedure utilizes a subinguinal incision and a surgical microscope. Open, robotic, and laparoscopic approaches to MDSC have been described, but access to minimally invasive instruments may be limited outside of developed nations. Pain reduction following preoperative spermatic cord predicts success of MDSC. Methods for identifying and preserving the testicular and deferential arteries vary depending on surgeon preference but appear to have comparable outcomes. Future developments in MDSC involve targeted denervation, minimizing collateral thermal injury, and alternative techniques to visualize arterial supply.

CONCLUSION

For patients suffering from CSP, MDSC is a well-studied technique that may offer appropriately selected patients' relief. Future investigation comparing targeted vs full MDSC as well as in vivo study of new techniques are needed to continue to improve outcomes. Sun HH, Tay KS, Jesse E, et al. Microsurgical Denervation of the Spermatic Cord: A Historical Perspective and Recent Developments. Sex Med Rev 2022;XX:XXX-XXX.

Non-pharmacological treatments for chronic orchialgia: A systemic review

Objective

: To review the outcomes of various therapeutic modalities that can be offered to patients with chronic orchialgia (CO) after failed conservative treatment.

Methods

: A literature search was conducted using the PubMed and MEDLINE databases searching for articles exploring different CO treatment modalities. A Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses approach was used to report the results of the literature search.

Results

: A total of 34 studies were included for qualitative analysis. Most of the studies explored microsurgical spermatic cord denervation (MSCD; n = 19). Eight studies involved devices and interventions directed at blocking nerve sensations (pulsed radiofrequency stimulation, n = 5; transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, n = 1; cryoablation, n = 1; and mechanical vibratory stimulation, n = 1). Five studies reported on vasectomy reversal as a modality to relieve post-vasectomy pain syndrome (PVPS), while two studies explored the outcomes of orchidectomy on pain relief in patients with CO.

Conclusion

: Several treatment methods are available in the urologist’s armamentarium for the treatment of CO. MSCD appears to be an appealing treatment modality with encouraging outcomes. Neuropathic pain can be managed with a number of relatively non-invasive modalities. Vasectomy reversal is a sound treatment approach for patients with PVPS and ultimately orchidectomy is a terminal approach that can be discussed with patients suffering from intractable pain.

Current trends and therapies in orchialgia management

The management of pain is a complex condition that will be encountered by most practicing clinicians. In the genitourinary community, testicular pain may be classified as acute or chronic. Initial evaluation of chronic groin and scrotal content pain (CGSCP) begins with a detailed history and physical examination to elucidate the presenting pathology. Multiple therapy algorithms have been proposed with no definitive consensus; however, most begin with conservative intervention and medical management prior to advancing to more invasive procedures. Surgical approaches may range from reconstruction, as in vasovasostomy for post-vasectomy pain syndrome, to excision of the offending agent, as in epididymectomy. This review seeks to focus on chronic pain in the genitourinary community and review techniques of pain management in the current intervention for orchialgia, as well as identify future methods of treatment.

Gold Standard Care of Chronic Scrotal Pain

INTRODUCTION

Chronic scrotal pain (CSP) can be a debilitating condition for patients and is often difficult to characterize.

METHODS

A review of literature was performed using Embase, Cochrane and Medline databases in the period 1.January 2010 to 1.January 2021. We found 132 articles, and the authors screened abstract and references. Thirty-seven articles are included after removing duplicates.

RESULTS

This review presents a variety of medical and surgical treatment options for CSP such as spermatic cord blocks (36-80% success rate), microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord (76-100% success rates), Botox (56% success rate), targeted ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric peripheral nerve stimulation, and radical orchiectomy (55-75% success rate).

CONCLUSION

An overview of various treatment options, both non-surgical and surgical are provided, with the aim of establishing what may be the best treatment option for CSP.

Preoperative Modified Spermatic Cord Block Predicts Success in Candidates for Microscopic Spermatic Cord Denervation

OBJECTIVE

To examine the utility of a modified spermatic cord block (MSCB) that targets known contributors to refractory chronic scrotal content pain (CSCP) at predicting postoperative pain relief following a microscopic spermatic cord denervation (MSCD).

METHODS

A MSCB was performed in all patients with refractory CSCP. This was performed by injecting anesthetic circumferentially around the vas deferens and over the external ring. Patients with >50% pain reduction were offered MSCD. Baseline, post-block, and postoperative pain was assessed. Age, prior groin surgery, and post-block pain free period were recorded. A multivariate linear regression model was used to determine predictors of surgical success.

RESULTS

Fifty-two patients underwent a MSCB. Forty-six (88%) had an adequate response and underwent MSCD. All patients saw improvement in pain postoperatively with an average reduction of 80% (4 < 50%; 7 50-69%; 35 ≥ 70%). On multivariate linear regression analysis, pain reduction following MSCD was an independent predictor of postoperative improvement (P < 0.001). No other factors, including post-block pain free period or prior surgery predicted success.

CONCLUSIONS

The described MSCB can be utilized as an independent predictor of success following MSCD. Post-block pain free period was not associated with postoperative pain level. The MSCB may help identify candidates for MSCD that would be missed with the traditional block.

Chronic Scrotal Content Pain: a Review of the Literature and Management Schemes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Chronic scrotal content pain (CSCP) is a complex condition with multiple etiologies that requires a thorough understanding of its pathophysiology, workup, and treatment options. We performed a comprehensive and contemporary review to augment our current understanding of CSCP.

RECENT FINDINGS

We discuss new advances in CSCP-specific pain questionnaires, modern studies of microscopic spermatic cord denervation and its variations, and novel techniques including electric nerve stimulation and cryoablation in addition to randomized control trials with significant negative findings. We also present literature focusing on the prevention of CSCP secondary to surgical iatrogenic causes. The constantly evolving literature of CSCP has led to the significant evolution in its diagnosis and treatment, from oral medications to salvage options after microscopic spermatic cord denervation. With each advance, we come closer to developing a more thorough, evidence-based algorithm to guide urologists in treatment of CSCP.

Preoperative Predictors of Failure of Microsurgical Spermatic Cord Denervation for Men With Chronic Orchialgia

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate predictors of failure of microsurgical spermatic cord denervation (MSCD) for men with chronic orchialgia.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review of men who underwent MSCD. Outcomes were recorded with potential preoperative predictors of failure.

RESULTS

One hundred and five men underwent MSCD, and of those, 38 were bilateral for a total of 143 testicular units. Overall, 97 of 143 (67.8%) had complete resolution of pain, 27 of 143 (18.9%) had improvement of pain, and 19 of 143 (13.3%) were considered failures with either no improvement or less than 50% improvement in pain after MSCD with a 1-year follow-up period. Overall, 59 of 143 (41%) presented with intermittent orchialgia while 84 of 143 (59%) presented with constant pain. The mean preoperative visual analog scale was 6.8 ± 2 and the mean duration of pain prior to MSCD was 62.5 ± 100 months. Potential etiologies of pain per testicular unit included previous scrotal/inguinal surgery 17 of 143 (11.9%), postvasectomy pain syndrome (PVPS) 30 of 143 (21%), infectious epididymitis 9 of 143 (6.3%), trauma 15/143 (10.5%), and idiopathic 72/143 (50.3%). The only pre-operative predictor having an association with predicting failure was the etiology of orchialgia. Relative to men who had idiopathic orchialgia or prior scrotal/inguinal surgery inciting orchialgia, men with PVPS had increased odds of failure with MSCD.

CONCLUSION

PVPS is an etiology associated with a higher risk of failure to respond to MSCD than idiopathic chronic orchialgia or chronic orchialgia subsequent to scrotal/inguinal surgery.

Microscopic spermatic cord denervation for chronic orchialgia/chronic scrotal content pain: operative outcomes and predictors of failure

Background

To describe our institutional outcomes with microscopic spermatic cord denervation (MSCD) for chronic scrotal content paint (CSCP) and identify predictors of treatment failure.

Methods

Retrospective chart review was performed to identify all MSCD performed by two surgeons at a single institution from 2010–2019. Patient demographic data and operative outcomes were collected. Patients were excluded from analysis if no post-operative follow up was available. Success was defined as complete resolution of bothersome pain. Multivariable logistic regression was utilized to identify predictors of treatment failure.

Results

During the study period, 101 patients were identified in which 113 MSCD procedures were performed. Final analysis included 103 procedures across 93 patients. Mean age was 41.8 years (SD 13.2), mean BMI was 29.2 kg/m² (SD 5.96) and median months of pain preceding surgery were 24 (range, 3–300 months). Overall, 75/103 (73%) MSCD were successful. Of the failures, 5 patients had recurrence of pain greater than 6 months after surgery. Only the presence of pelvic floor muscle spasm (PFMS) independently predicted MSCD failure (OR 3.95, P=0.02). 9 of 19 (47%) patients with PFMS experienced treatment failure, while 19 of 84 (23%) without PFMS experienced failure.

Conclusions

MSCD offers a therapeutic option for patients with refractory CSCP. The presence of PFMS is associated with lower surgical success rates. Patients with pre-operatively identified PFMS should be counseled regarding a higher risk of treatment failure.

Targeted Microsurgical Denervation of the Spermatic Cord for Chronic Orchialgia: the Current Standard of Care

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This paper reviews the pathophysiology, current literature, techniques for full microsurgical denervation (MDSC) and targeted microsurgical denervation (TMDSC) of the spermatic cord, and outcomes for these treatment options for patients with chronic scrotal content pain (CSCP) or orchialgia.

RECENT FINDINGS

Significant reduction in pain (77-100%) is reported across various studies for CSCP patients with minimal patient morbidity. The testicular atrophy/loss risk is less than 1%. Testosterone levels do not appear to be affected by TMDSC/MDSC. The outcomes between TMDSC and MDSC are comparable (not statistically significantly different). However, TMDSC is significantly more efficient and a lot less tedious to perform. TMSCD had a shorter microsurgical operative time (21 min vs 53 min, P = 0.0001) than MDSC. Targeted or full microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord is a safe and effective treatment option that is well published across several studies. The targeted MDSC approach is a more efficient and potentially less risky approach with similar outcomes to full MDSC.

Hydrodissection for improved microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord: prospective blinded randomized control trial in a rat model

Microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord (MDSC) can provide up to an 86% improvement in pain in patients with chronic orchialgia (CO) who have failed conservative management. Failures in MDSC could be due to small diameter nerves (≤1 mm) left behind on the spermatic cord. The objective of this study was to assess if hydrodissection (HD) of the spermatic cord after MDSC could decrease the number of residual nerve fibers without compromising blood flow. Prospective blinded randomized control trial: bilateral MDSC was performed on 22 adult rats (44 cords). HD of the spermatic cord was performed on one side of each rat (side randomized) using the ERBEJET2. The contralateral cord (no HD) was the control for each animal. Blood flow through the vessels was monitored using a micro-Doppler probe. After completion a cross-section of the residual cord was sent to pathology (blinded to technique) to assess for small diameter nerves and signs of damage in vascular integrity. Blood flow had been maintained in the vessels when the ERBEJET2 was set to 6 bar (87 psi). The cord where HD had been performed had a significantly lower total median residual nerve count of 5 (0-10), compared to 8 (2-12) on the non-HD side (p = 0.007). No structural damage was seen in the vessels in the spermatic cord that had undergone HD (gross exam and histology). HD of the spermatic cord significantly decreases residual nerve density without compromising vascular integrity in a rat model.

Prospective control trial: flexible CO2 laser vs. monopolar electrocautery for robotic microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord

Microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord (MDSC) is a treatment option in patients with chronic orchialgia. This procedure requires precise care to avoid any thermal damage to crucial adjacent tissues (arteries, veins, and lymphatics). Monopolar electrocautery is the standard ligation energy source, but may cause extensive collateral damage to the tissues. However, CO₂ laser is known to produce a very predictable tissue penetration and minimal collateral spread. The goal of this study was to compare the extent of collateral thermal damage in both monopolar electrocautery and CO₂ laser ablation in the spermatic cord during a robotic assisted MDSC (RMDSC) procedure as well as the feasibility for utilizing the flexible fiber-optic CO₂ laser probe after "RMDSC" procedure. RMDSC was performed using standard monopolar electrocautery on the spermatic cord of one side of a fresh human male cadaver (randomly selected) and then compared to RMDSC using the CO₂ laser on the contralateral spermatic cord. Nine histological cross-sections from each cord were measured for depth of collateral thermal/cautery injury. The mean collateral thermal injury with CO₂ laser was 0.17 ± 0.031 mm (range: 0.15-0.25 mm), and with standard electrocautery 0.72 ± 0.046 mm (range: 0.60-0.75 mm). CO₂ laser resulted significantly less collateral thermal injury than standard electrocautery (p < 0.0001). The CO₂ laser probe was easy to manipulate with the Black Diamond micro-forceps (Intuitive Surgical, CA) and allowed for convenient tissue plane dissection. Human cadaveric targeted RMDSC using a flexible CO₂ laser energy results in significantly decreased collateral thermal injury compared to standard monopolar electrocautery. These initial findings suggest potential advantages of the CO₂ laser over traditional monopolar cautery in cases requiring minimal collateral tissue damage. Future studies are needed to assess its clinical potential in microsurgery.

Management of Chronic Orchialgia: Challenges and Solutions - The Current Standard of Care

INTRODUCTION

Chronic scrotal content pain (CSP) or chronic orchialgia can be debilitating for patients and difficult to treat. There is a paucity of structured treatment algorithms to approach this difficult condition.

METHODS

A review of the literature was performed. Conservative treatment options are presented and then targeted surgical interventions that the urologist may perform are then presented in a structured algorithm format. Many of these patients may obtain a significant reduction in pain with some of these treatments.

RESULTS

This review presents the pathophysiology, a new assessment tool, and various treatment options available for CSP patients, such as targeted spermatic cord blocks, targeted and standard microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord (77-100% success rates), ultrasound-guided peri-spermatic cord and ilioinguinal cryoablation (59-75% success rates), scrotox (botox) (56-72% success rates), targeted ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric peripheral nerve stimulation (72% success rate), radical orchiectomy (20-75% success rate), targeted robotic-assisted intra-abdominal denervation (71% success rate) and vasectomy reversal (69-100% success rates).

CONCLUSION

A structured and evidence-based approach to help urologists manage patients with chronic orchialgia or scrotal content pain is presented.

Validation of targeted microsurgical spermatic cord denervation: comparison of outcomes to traditional complete microsurgical spermatic cord denervation

The aim of this study was to validate the effectiveness of targeted microsurgical spermatic cord denervation (MSCD) of the trifecta nerve complex in comparison to traditional full MSCD with complete skeletonization of the spermatic cord in men with chronic orchialgia. Retrospective chart review was performed by a single fellowship-trained microsurgeon between 2011 and 2016. Patients had follow-ups at 6 weeks, 6 months, and 1 year postoperatively. Thirty-nine men with chronic orchialgia underwent full MSCD between 2011 and 2013. In July 2013, after the publication of an anatomic study with identification of Wallerian degeneration of the trifecta nerve complex in men with chronic orchialgia, the technique was changed to targeted MSCD. From July 2013 to March 2016, 43 men underwent targeted MSCD. When comparing the full MSCD group to the targeted MSCD group, there was no significant difference in resolution of pain (66.7% vs 69.8%, P = 0.88), no difference in partial relief of pain (17.9% vs 23.3%, P = 0.55), and no difference in failure to respond rates (15.4% vs 7.0%, P = 0.22) between the two groups. There was no difference in mean change of visual analog pain scale scores between the two groups (P = 0.27). Targeted MSCD had a shorter operative time (53 min vs 21 min, P = 0.0001). Targeted MSCD offers patients comparable outcomes to traditional full MSCD, with a shorter operative time, a less technically challenging surgery, and potentially less risk to cord structures which should be preserved.

Management of chronic testicular pain due to thoracolumbar junction syndrome: A pilot study

INTRODUCTION

Thoracolumbar dysfunction (TLD) had been evoked as a possible etiology of chronic testicular pain. Our study investigated the efficacy of osteopathic diagnosis and treatment of TLD in men with chronic testicular pain.

METHODS

Patients suffering from testicular pain were examined for thoracolumbar dysfunction and enrolled in a prospective trial if they have both conditions. Following standardized examination, all patients were prescribed 1 to 3 osteopathic treatment sessions, usually at weekly interval. Treatment success was evaluated using the Visual Analog scale and durability was assessed by regular follow-up. Patient satisfaction was also assessed. Comparison of pain improvement was done using Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test. Logistic regression was used to assess for risk factors of success. A P<0.001 was used for significance.

RESULT

Out of 62 patients enrolled, 41 patients (median age 32 years, IQR 24-37) were suffering from chronic testicular pain and TLD. 37 of the 41 participants completed the treatment and follow-up according to the plan. Patients underwent a median of 2 osteopathic treatment sessions (range 1-3). Overall, pain disappeared completely in 25 patients (67.5%) and improvement was noted in 7 patients (18.9%). After initial improvement, two patients experienced relapse at their last visit (5.4%). Five patients (13.5%) had no improvement of their symptoms after osteopathic treatment. Statistically, improvement was significant with a P<0.001 and on logistic regression, site of pain and duration of pain were the sole predictors of failure.

CONCLUSION

TLD is a pathology that should be considered in the differential diagnosis in patients with chronic testicular pain and osteopathic manipulation of the spine appears to be an effective treatment option.

Microsurgical subinguinal cremaster muscle release for chronic orchialgia secondary to hyperactive cremaster muscle reflex in adults

A careful history and evaluation of men with chronic orchialgia elucidates the aetiology in some men to be a hyperactive cremaster muscle reflex with testicular retraction as the cause. The objective is to evaluate outcomes in men who underwent microsurgical subinguinal cremaster muscle release (MSCMR) with a retrospective chart review between September 2011 and April 2019. Nineteen men with hyperactive cremaster muscle reflex in 25 spermatic cord units underwent MSCMR, six bilateral and thirteen unilateral. Candidacy for MSCMR included answering yes to the question: “at times of testicular pain, does the testicle retract up in the groin to the extent that you have to milk it back down to the scrotum?”, normal digital rectal examinations, negative urinalyses, negative scrotal Doppler ultrasounds, vigorous retraction of testis with Valsalva on examination and pain without an anatomic or pathologically identifiable aetiology except testicular retraction. Of the men who underwent MSCMR, 100% (25/25) of spermatic cord units had resolution of testicular retraction and 92% (23/25) of spermatic cord units had complete resolution of orchialgia. There was one complication, a small scrotal hematoma which resolved. MSCMR is an effective option for men with orchialgia secondary to testicular retraction due to a hyperactive cremaster muscle reflex.

High Inguinal Microsurgical Denervation of the Spermatic Cord for Chronic Scrotal Content Pain: A Novel Approach for Adult and Pediatric Patients

OBJECTIVE

To improve the technique and results of microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord (MDSC) for men with chronic scrotal content pain, we describe a novel approach at the level of the internal inguinal ring for the complete transection of the nerves running both inside and outside the spermatic cord for adults and children.

METHODS

A retrospective review of 52 patients (64 testicular units) who underwent high inguinal MDSC was performed. Visual analogue scale (VAS, 1-10) scores were compared with before and every 3 months after the surgery. Depressive symptoms were assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory. Hormonal evaluations were performed before and 6 months after the surgery.

RESULTS

The average patient age was 52.4 years (12-78); including 6 pediatric cases. The mean operative time was 67 minutes per testicular unit, and there were no major complications. The mean pre- and post-MDSC VAS scores were 8.3 and 2.5, respectively (P < .0001). Forty-six (88%) cases showed positive responses after MDSC, and multivariate analysis showed that pain outside the scrotum and depressive symptoms were predictors of MDSC failure (P < .05, odds ratio: 15.27 and 12.56, respectively).

CONCLUSION

For both adult and pediatric patients, high inguinal MDSC is an effective and safe management option, including testicular function, for the chronic scrotal content pain that is refractory to medical management. We find that the high inguinal approach is easier in our experience than the subinguinal approach because of fewer divisions of veins, a larger diameter of the spermatic artery.

Salvage Ultrasound-guided Targeted Cryoablation of The Perispermatic Cord For Persistent Chronic Scrotal Content Pain After Microsurgical Denervation Of The Spermatic Cord

OBJECTIVE

To assesses the efficacy of ultrasound-guided targeted cryoablation (UTC) of the perispermatic cord as a salvage treatment for patients who failed microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord.

METHODS

Retrospective review of 279 cases (221 patients: 58 bilateral) undergoing UTC between November 2012 and July 2016, performed by 2 fellowship trained microsurgeons. UTC was performed using a 16-gauge cryo needle (Endocare, HealthTronics, Austin, TX). Branches of the genitofemoral, ilioinguinal, and inferior hypogastric nerves were cryoablated medial and lateral to the spermatic cord at the level of the external inguinal ring. Level of pain was measured preoperatively and postoperatively using the visual analog scale and Pain Index Questionnaire-6 (QualityMetric Inc., Lincoln, RI).

RESULTS

Median age was 43 years, operative duration 20 minutes, and postoperative follow-up 36 months (24-60). Subjective visual analog scale outcomes: 75% significant reduction in ain (11% complete resolution and 64% ≥50% reduction in pain). Objective Pain Index Questionnaire-6 outcomes: 53% significant reduction at 1 month (279 cases), 55% at 3 month (279 cases), 60% at 6 month (279 cases), 63% at 1 year (279 cases), 65% at 2 years (275 cases), 64% at 3 years (232 cases), 59% at 4 years (128 cases) and 64% at 5 years (53 cases) post-op.

COMPLICATIONS

2 wound infections, 4 penile pain cases (resolved in a few months).

CONCLUSION

UTC of the perispermatic cord is a safe potential treatment option for the salvage management of persistent chronic scrotal pain in patients who have failed microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord.

Microsurgical Denervation of Spermatic Cord for Chronic Idiopathic Orchialgia: Long-Term Results from an Institutional Experience

Purpose

Chronic testicular pain remains an important challenge for urologists. At present there are many treatment modalities available for chronic orchialgia. Some patients remain in pain despite a conservative treatment. Microsurgical denervation of spermatic cord appears to be successful in relieving pain in patients who fail conservative management. We assessed the long-term efficacy, complications and patient perceptions of microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord in the treatment of chronic orchialgia.

Materials and Methods

A prospective study was conducted from January 2007 to January 2016 which included men with testicular pain of >3 months duration, failure of conservative management, persistent of pain for >3 months after treating the underlying cause. Total 48 patients with 62 testicular units (14 bilateral) showed the response to spermatic cord block and underwent microsurgical denervation of spermatic cord.

Results

Out of 62 testicular units (14 bilateral) which were operated, complete 2 years follow-up data were available for 38 testicular units. Out of these 38 units, 31 units (81.57%) had complete pain relief, 4 units (10.52%) had partial pain, and 3 units (7.89%) were non-responders. Complications were superficial wound infection in 3 units (4.83%), hydrocele in 2 units (3.22%), subcutaneous seroma in 2 units (3.22%), and an incisional hematoma in 1unit (1.61%) out of 62 operated testicular units.

Conclusions

Idiopathic chronic orchialgia remains a difficult condition to manage. If surgery is considered, microsurgical denervation of spermatic cord should be considered as a first surgical approach to get rid of pain and sparing the testicle.

Canadian Urological Association best practice report on chronic scrotal pain

N/A

Chronic Scrotal Pain

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Chronic scrotal pain (CSP) is a common yet poorly understood condition, with significant impacts on overall quality of life. Many patients will have sought evaluation and management from multiple providers in an attempt to find a solution for their pain.

RECENT FINDINGS

Despite many emerging treatments for CSP and further understanding of the potential etiologies and pathophysiological basis of the condition, its natural history is poorly understood. It is also important to recognize the psychosocial impact of CSP and consider formal referral for psychological evaluation and treatment if the patient endorses significant psychiatric responses to pain. It is important to also recognize the neuropathic component of pain that may arise in patients with CSP. Neuropathic medications show promise as a narcotic-sparing pharmacological intervention. There are promising surgical options for CSP including microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord. This article highlights the current best practice recommendations on the evaluation and management of chronic scrotal pain.

Targeted Robotic Assisted Microsurgical Denervation of the Spermatic Cord for the Treatment of Chronic Orchialgia or Groin Pain: A Single Center, Large Series Review

PURPOSE

Microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord is a treatment option for chronic orchialgia refractory to conservative treatment. A recent study showed specific nerve fibers as the possible cause of chronic orchialgia. Our goal was to present the outcomes of ligation of these nerves using a technique of targeted robotic assisted microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the records of 772 patients who underwent targeted robotic assisted microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord from October 2007 to July 2016. Selection criteria were chronic testicular pain more than 3 months in duration, failed conservative treatments, negative neurological and urological workup, and temporary resolution of pain with a local anesthetic spermatic cord block. Targeted robotic assisted microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord was performed. Pain was assessed preoperatively and postoperatively using a subjective visual analog scale and objectively with the standardized and validated PIQ-6 (Pain Impact Questionnaire-6) score.

RESULTS

Followup data were available on 860 cases. During a median followup of 24 months (range 1 to 70) 718 cases (83%) showed a significant reduction in pain and 142 (17%) had no change in pain by subjective visual analog scale scoring. Of cases with a significant reduction in pain 426 (49%) had complete resolution and 292 (34%) had a 50% or greater reduction. Objective PIQ-6 analysis showed a significant reduction in pain in 67% of patients 6 months postoperatively, in 68% at 1 year, in 77% at 2 years, in 86% at 3 years and in 83% at 4 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeted robotic assisted microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord is an effective, minimally invasive approach with potential long-term durability in patients with refractory chronic orchialgia.

Chronic Testicular and Groin Pain: Pathway to Relief

The management of patients suffering with chronic testicular and groin pain is very challenging. With increased awareness of men's health, more patients and clinicians are open to talk about this complex problem that affects over 100,000 men/year. The pathogenesis of chronic orchialgia is still not clear, but there are several postulated theories. Treatment options include conservative medical therapy with NSAIDs, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and narcotics. Surgical options such as targeted microsurgical denervation and microcryoablation can provide permanent durable pain relief. The goal of this article is to review and discuss the management of patients with chronic orchialgia using currently available literature.

Anatomy and physiology of chronic scrotal pain

This article reviews the anatomy and physiology of the scrotum and its contents as it pertains to chronic scrotal pain. Physiology of chronic pain is reviewed, as well as the pathophysiology involved in the development of chronic pain.

Psychological perspectives in the patient with chronic orchialgia

Chronic orchialgia is a challenging problem to both the practitioner and unhappy patient and may be a poorly understood manifestation of a potential variety of different discrete causes. Treatment options can be wide ranging and include conservative measures, medical therapy, in office treatments and surgical procedures. Research has primarily focused on these more concrete treatment options with little focus on the either co-morbid or causative psychological issues. By at least considering the potential psychological co-morbidities and stressors that may be associated with chronic orchialgia, physicians can better utilize a multi-modal approach to this vexing problem.

Chronic scrotal pain and microsurgical spermatic cord denervation: tricks of the trade

Every practicing urologist encounters patients complaining of chronic scrotal content pain (CSCP). This condition can be equally frustrating for both patients and clinicians as there are no clear treatment guidelines, or pathways, for urologists to follow. As a result, most patients typically seek out multiple providers without improvements in their symptoms. Fortunately, microsurgical spermatic cord denervation (MSCD) is becoming an accepted, reliable and reproducible technique for definitively addressing CSCP in select patients. This manuscript reviews the background, effectiveness and current practice guidelines for scrotal pain in general, and MSCD in particular. Technical insights into how this technique can be performed both safely, and efficaciously, are provided. Finally, the manuscript presents a simple, yet detailed, easy to follow treatment algorithm to aid all urologists in the management of patients presenting with chronic pain.

A review of varicocele repair for pain

A dilation of the pampiniform venous plexus in the scrotum above the testicle, called a varicocele, affects approximately 15% of the general male population. While the majority is asymptomatic, pain results in up to 10% of cases of varicoceles. The pain associated with varicoceles is typically mild and is described as heavy, achy, or dull—and is usually isolated to the testicle or spermatic cord. Guidelines clearly recommend varicocele repair in males with varicoceles, infertility, and an abnormal semen analysis. While chronic, severe pain is an additional indication for repair, a careful evaluation to rule out other etiologies in addition to a period of conservative management are necessary prior to surgical treatment because of the high incidental prevalence of varicoceles in the general population. Several techniques for varicocele repair have been described, including retroperitoneal, laparoscopic, inguinal, and subinguinal. Additionally, recent adjuncts to improve visualization and identification of critical structures including the operating microscope and microvascular Doppler ultrasound have improved success and complication rates. With careful patient selection, outcomes of varicocele repair with regard to pain are excellent, with over 90% of patients experiencing symptomatic relief. After failure of conservative treatments, a varicocele associated with pain should be considered for repair, and the microsurgical subinguinal approach is the gold standard surgical treatment, offering excellent outcomes while minimizing risk of complications.

Genital pain: algorithm for management

Chronic testicular pain although becoming very common in our patient population poses a challenge to the physician, the patient and his family. The pathogenesis of chronic orchialgia (CO) is not well understood. The objective of this paper is to review the current literature on chronic testicular pain and its management and to propose an algorithm for its treatment. Abstracts, original papers and review articles were reviewed during a literature search using words such as testicular pain, CO, and microsurgical anatomy of spermatic cord. Chronic scrotal content pain (CSP) is a difficult condition to treat and could be idiopathic or secondary. Conservative therapy is the first line of treatment attempted to allow the patient to return to his routine activities. When conservative treatment fails, patients can now turn toward surgical options such as microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord (MDSC) which has a success rate published in the 60-85% range and/or minimally invasive therapies such as microcryoablation of the spermatic cord, Botox or Amniofix injection. There is an increase in referrals for CO. The true pathogenesis is still unclear and the road to complete recovery is unsure for certain patients. This paper proposes an algorithm for the management of patients suffering with CO.

Prevalence of Relative Deficiencies in Testosterone and Vitamin B12 Among Patients Referred for Chronic Orchialgia: Implications for Management

Chronic testicular pain (CTP) is a complex pain syndrome that is widely variable in presentation and etiology. Many cases of CTP are thought to be associated with neuropathy and recent data suggest an inflammation-mediated process is more common among patients with CTP. Deficiencies in vitamin B12 and testosterone are common in chronic pain syndromes may play a role in CTP. A retrospective review of men treated for CTP by a single provider over a 2-year period was performed. Patients with serum screening of testosterone and B12 were selected. Patients with total testosterone below 300 ng/dl, free testosterone below 46 pg/ml, or B12 below 400 pg/ml were deemed deficient and offered repletion. Efficacy of treatment was measured based on patient report with a minimum follow-up of either 3 months or resolution of pain symptoms. One hundred and fifty-four (154) men with CTP were identified, with 125 assessed for testosterone and B12 levels. Of these, 95 patients (76%) were deemed deficient. Fifty-six (56) patients elected to receive B12/testosterone replacement. In patients with sufficient follow-up, 24 patients (65%) reported significant improvement of symptoms, 6 patients (16%) reported some improvement, and 7 patients (19%) reported no improvement. The prevalence of testosterone and B12 deficiencies in this study is much higher than that reported for the general population. In addition, when chemical deficiencies were corrected, greater than 80% of patients with sufficient follow-up reported some improvement in pain. This suggests that screening of B12 and testosterone should be incorporated into the assessment of patients with CTP.

Chronic orchialgia: Review of treatments old and new

Introduction:

Chronic orchialgia is historically and currently a challenging disease to treat. It is a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge for physicians. Conservative therapy has served as the first line of treatment. For those who fail conservative therapy, surgical intervention may be required. We aim to provide a review of currently available surgical options and novel surgical treatment options.

Methods:

A review of current literature was performed using PubMed. Literature discussing treatment options for chronic orchialgia were identified. The following search terms were used to identify literature that was relevant to this review: Chronic orchialgia, testicular pain, scrotal content pain, and microsurgical denervation of the spermatic cord (MDSC).

Results:

The incidence of chronic orchialgia has been increasing over time. In the USA, it affects up to 100,000 men per year due to varying etiologies. The etiology of chronic orchialgia can be a confounding problem. Conservative therapy should be viewed as the first line therapy. Studies have reported poor success rates. Current surgical options for those who fail conservative options include varicocelectomy, MDSC, epididymectomy, and orchiectomy. Novel treatment options include microcryoablation of the peri-spermatic cord, botox injection, and amniofix injection.

Conclusion:

Chronic orchialgia has been and will continue to be a challenging disease to treat due to its multiple etiologies and variable treatment outcomes. Further studies are needed to better understand the problem. Treatment options for patients with chronic orchialgia are improving. Additional studies are warranted to better understand the long-term durability of this treatment options.

Microsurgical Spermatic Cord Denervation as a Treatment for Chronic Scrotal Content Pain: A Multicenter Open Label Trial

PURPOSE

We prospectively evaluated the results of microsurgical spermatic cord denervation in a series of patients with chronic scrotal content pain in a multicenter study, including 1 center in Germany and 3 centers in Chile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 50 patients with chronic scrotal content pain more than 3 months in duration were prospectively selected for standardized operative microsurgical spermatic cord denervation as pain treatment. In all patients preoperative management included a positive response to a spermatic cord block test with local anesthesia. Pain severity was assessed using an analog visual pain scale (range 0 to 10) for 30 consecutive days. A total of 52 testicular units were operated on using a subinguinal approach. In all cases a surgical microscope was used to identify the arteria testicularis.

RESULTS

No intraoperative complications were observed and no testicular units were lost. Two reoperations were performed, including 1 for hematocele and 1 for hydrocele. Six months after surgery 40 patients (80%) were completely pain-free. In 6 patients (12%) intermittent testicular discomfort persisted, which could be managed by acetaminophen on demand. Four patients (8%) had no change in pain severity after surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

After proper selection of patients microsurgical spermatic cord denervation seems to be a safe and efficient procedure to treat chronic scrotal content pain. Considering the limitations of the study, a randomized, controlled trial with longer followup is highly warranted.

Early experience with microsurgical spermatic cord denervation for chronic orchialgia at a Canadian centre

INTRODUCTION

Microsurgical spermatic cord denervation (MSCD) is an effective surgical technique to manage chronic orchalgia, but it has not been readily adopted by Canadian urosurgeons. This paper reviews the early experience of a single urosurgeon in Canada.

METHODS

Nine consecutive testicular units underwent MSCD over a 24 month period. These patients underwent MSCD after ruling out reversible causes and after a successful diagnostic spermatic cord block.

RESULTS

Of these patients, 77% (7/9) had a complete resolution and 22% (2/9) had a partial resolution of their pain symptoms following MSCD. There were no failures or complications.

CONCLUSIONS

MSCD is an effective, safe, and reproducible surgical technique that should be included in the treatment armamentarium for chronic orchalgia.

Robotic microsurgery optimization

The increased application of the da Vinci robotic platform (Intuitive Surgical Inc.) for microsurgery has led to the development of new adjunctive surgical instrumentation. In microsurgery, the robotic platform can provide high definition 12×-15× digital magnification, broader range of motion, fine instrument handling with decreased tremor, reduced surgeon fatigue, and improved surgical productivity. This paper presents novel adjunctive tools that provide enhanced optical magnification, micro-Doppler sensing of vessels down to a 1-mm size, vein mapping capabilities, hydro-dissection, micro-ablation technology (with minimal thermal spread-CO₂ laser technology), and confocal microscopy to provide imaging at a cellular level. Microsurgical outcomes from the use of these tools in the management of patients with infertility and chronic groin and testicular pain are reviewed. All these instruments have been adapted for the robotic console and enhance the robot-assisted microsurgery experience. As the popularity of robot-assisted microsurgery grows, so will its breadth of instrumentation.